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Abstrak :
Disertasi ini membahas dinamika pariwisata di Hindia Belanda tahun 1891-1942. Dari perubahan penggunaan konsep vreemdelingenverkeer lalu lintas orang asing menjadi toeristenverkeer lalu lintas wisatawan di Hindia yang kemudian bermakna toerisme/ tourisme pariwisata dapat dilihat dinamika kegiatan pariwisata di wilayah tersebut, mulai dari kemunculan hingga keruntuhan.Tujuan utama penelitian ini adalah mengungkapkan dinamika kegiatan pariwisata di Hindia-Belanda, dari proses pembentukan embrio kegiatan pariwisata hingga situasi pada masa pendudukan Jepang. Pariwisata di sini adalah kegiatan yang merupakan konstruksi budaya dari barat yang dipraktikkan di Hindia, terutama kegiatan pariwisata yang diatur dan bersifat massal.Sebagai alat bantu analisis digunakan pendekatan siklus Arnold Toynbee yang diawali dengan kelahiran, pertumbuhan, dan keruntuhan. Pendekatan ini dipadukan dengan konsep Tourism Area Life Cycle TALC dari Richard W.Butler, terutama digunakan untuk menganalisis perkembangan objek wisata di Hindia-Belanda. Ada tujuh tahap yang diajukan Butler. Tahap pertama berupa exploration penjelajahan, lalu involvement keterlibatan . Tahap berikut adalah development pembangunan, setelah itu consolidation konsolidasi. Berikutnya adalah stagnation stagnasi. Pasca stagnasi ada dua bagian yaitu decline penurunan dan rejuvenation peremajaan. Pendekatan lain adalah konsep asosiasi sukarela voluntary association dibantu dengan agency untuk menganalisis proses pembentukan berbagai organisasi/klub yang berkaitan dengan kegiatan pariwisata.Hasil penelitian memperlihatkan bahwa embrio kegiatan pariwisata di Hindia muncul pada akhir abad ke-19. Kemunculan itu ditandai dengan kegiatan-kegiatan organisasi sukarela di beberapa kota besar di Hindia yang mengacu pada organisasi di negeri induk dan gagasan beberapa individu yang berprofesi sebagai pendeta, jurnalis, praktisi perhotelan, pegawai pemerintah. Kegiatan pariwisata di Hindia yang diatur ditandai dengan pembentukan Vereniging Toeristenverkeer perhimpunan pariwisata di Batavia pada 13 April 1908. Organisasi ini mengacu pada Kihinkai Welcome Society , perhimpunan pariwisata yang dibentuk pada 1893 di Jepang. Alasan keterlibatan pemerintah dalam kegiatan pariwisata adalah alasan ekonomi.Periode 1891-1908 merupakan periode kelahiran kegiatan pariwisata di Hindia yang diatur. Dilihat dari perkembangan objek wisata, periode ini merupakan tahap penjelajahan. Objek wisata yang dikunjungi berada di wilayah Jawa, beberapa wilayah di Sumatra. Periode 1908-1941 adalah periode pertumbuhan. Berbagai strategi promosi dirancang dan dilakukan. Pada periode ini jika dilihat dari perkembangan objek wisata masuk pada tahap keterlibatan dan sekaligus pembangunan. Objek wisata pada periode ini selain Jawa, Sumatra, Kepulauan Sunda Kecil Bali, Lombok , adalah Kepulauan Maluku, beberapa wilayah di Sulawesi. Namun, pada 1942 kegiatan pariwisata di Hindia mengalami keruntuhan karena masuknya pemerintah pendudukan Jepang. Oleh karena itu tahap berikut konsolidasi dan stagnasi tidak dialami oleh Hindia-Belanda.

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This dissertation discusses the dynamics of tourism in the Dutch East Indies in 1891 1942. From the change in the use of the concept of vreemdelingenverkeer foreigners rsquo traffic into toeristenverkeer tourist traffic in the Indies which then means toerisme tourisme tourism can be seen the dynamics of tourism activities in the region, from the emergence to the collapse.The main purpose of this study is to uncover the dynamics of tourism activities in the Dutch East Indies, from the process of formation embryo tourism activities to the situation during the Japanese occupation. Here, tourism is an activity that is a western cultural construction practiced in the Indies, especially organized and mass tourism activities.As an analytical tool, used Arnold Toynbee rsquo s cyclical approach that begins with birth, growth, and collapse. This approach is combined with the concept of Tourism Area Life Cycle TALC from Richard W. Butler, primarily used to analyze the development of tourist attractions in the Dutch East Indies. There are seven stages proposed by Butler. The first stage is exploration, then involvement. The next stage is development, then consolidation. After consolidation stage is stagnation. In the post stagnation stage there are two scenarios namely decline and rejuvenation. Another approach is the voluntary association and agency concept to analyze the process of establishing various organizations clubs relating to tourism activities.The results show that the embryo of tourism activities in the Indies emerged at the end of the 19th century. The emergence was characterized by voluntary organizational activities in several major cities of the Indies that referred to the organization of the motherland the Netherlands and the ideas of some individuals who worked as priest, journalist, hospitality practitioner, government officials. The organized tourism activities in the Indies are characterized by the establishment of the Vereniging Toeristenverkeer tourism association in Batavia on 13 April 1908. This organization refers to Kihinkai Welcome Society, a tourism association established in 1893 in Japan. The reasons for Dutch East Indies rsquo government involvement in tourism activities were largely economic.The period 1891 1908 was the period of birth of the organized tourism activities in the Indies. From the development of tourist attraction, this period is in the stage of exploration. Tourist attractions who visited are located in Java, some areas of Sumatra. The period 1908 1941 is the growth period of tourism activities. Various promotional strategies are designed and performed. In this period, viewed from the development of tourist attractions get into the stage of involvement and simultaneously development. Tourist attractions in this period addition to Java, Sumatra, the Lesser Sunda Islands Bali, Lombok, are the Maluku Islands, some areas of Sulawesi. However, in 1942 tourism activities in the Indies collapsed due to the entry of the Japanese occupation government. Therefore the stages consolidation and stagnation were not experienced by the Dutch East Indies.

Abstrak :
Penelitian “Galeri Nasional Indonesia dalam Pembentukan Identitas Nasional: Kajian Tentang Pameran Seni Rupa Nusantara di GNI, Jakarta, Tahun 2001-2017”, dengan pertimbangan GNI merupakan salah satu State Cultural Institutions atau Lembaga Kebudayaan Negara, selain Museum Nasional (National Museum), Perpustakaan Nasional (National Library), dan Pusat Arsip Nasional RI. Lembaga-lembaga kebudayaan tersebut berada di pusat pemerintahan selain menjadi landmark sebuah bangsa modern, juga sebagai barometer peradaban bangsa sehingga berperan signifikan dalam pembentukan Identitas Nasional. Tujuan kajian menjelaskan proses panjang pendirian GNI dan peran GNI dalam pembentukan identitas nasional melalui kebijakan Pameran Seni Rupa Nusantara (PSRN). PSRN merupakan peristiwa penting, karena sejak Indonesia merdeka, untuk pertama kalinya berhasil menyelenggarakan pameran Seni Rupa Modern Kontemporer yang melibatkan seniman dari 31 provinsi. Konsep kuratorial yang dirancang memberi ruang apresiasi bagi budaya-budaya minoritas khususnya luar Jawa Bali, dimana sebelum GNI terbentuk kurang mendapat tempat di panggung nasional. Tampaknya GNI memiliki “nilai tawar” dalam pembentukan identitas nasional melalui perkembangan seni rupa modern kontemporer Indonesia yaitu dalam mengintegrasikan potensi kelokalan dari setiap wilayah menjadi spirit keindonesiaan. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode sejarah: heuristik, verifikasi/kritik, interpretasi, dan historiografi, dengan metodologi strukturistik dan pendekatan konsep Multikulturalisme. Kebaruan dari metodologi yaitu “Exhibition History” yaitu bagaimana gerak sejarah institusi budaya dikaji melalui peristiwa Pameran Seni Rupa yang melibatkan kebijakan institusi negara, kurator dan seniman. Sumber sejarah yang utama kajian literatur, yaitu arsip, dokumen dan Katalog Pameran Seni Rupa. Metode sejarah lisan dengan pelaku sejarah menjadi penekanan riset ini. Dalam konteks substansi, kebaruan dari riset ini dapat dilihat dari lingkup kajian yaitu dinamika seni rupa Indonesia era 2000-an dan 2010-an, dengan melibatkan seni rupa luar Jawa Bali. Kajian historiografi yang dilakukan Clire Holt (seni rupa pra sejarah-1950- an) dan Helena Spajaard (1900—1995), tidak signifikan mengkaji peran seni rupa luar Jawa Bali dalam historiografi Indonesia. Sehingga dapat dikatakan kajian ini melengkapi kajian sebelumnya. Hasil kajian menunjukan (1) Proses pembentukan GNI yang terkesan lambat tak lepas dari “Political will” dari pemerintahan terkait, (2) Kesenjangan seni rupa yang terjadi sebelum GNI terbentuk tak lepas dari kebijakan Etnonasionalisme yang terjadi sebagai dampak dari sistem pemerintahan yang cenderung memusat dan hegemoni dengan menggunakan basis kelompok etnis, ras, kelompok etnis sebagai landasan berbangsa dan bernegara, (3) Peran GNI sangat sentral dalam pembentukan Identitas Nasional melalui PSRN dengan memberi ruang apresiasi kepada kebudayaan “minoritas” khususnya Seni Rupa Luar Jawa dan Bali. Dampak PSRN terhadap pembentukan identitas nasional dapat dilihat dari dua hal yaitu kesadaran para seniman pada era 2000-an dan 2010-an dalam menciptakan karya-karya yang memiliki tema kritik sosial sebagai upaya menjaga kesatuan Negara Republik Indonesia, yaitu: (a) Aktualisasi Politik: Konflik Sosial-Horizontal, Toleransi Religius, Integrasi-disintegrasi, (b) Wacana Global: Lingkungan Hidup, Sekularitas-Spiritualitas, Kabangkitan Lokal, (c) Modernitas-Kontemporer dan Keragaman-Kesatuan. Tema-tema tersebut belum ditemukenali pada kajian-kajian sebelumnya baik yang dilakukan Claire Holt dan Helena Spanjaard. Kedua terjadinya Gerakan sosial budaya khususnya di luar Jawa Bali melalui spirit solidaritas komunitas lokal. Fenomena kebangkitan multikulturalisme ini menandai gerak sejarah perkembangan seni rupa diluar Jawa-Bali. Pendekatan konsep Identitas Nasional menekankan pada gerakan ideologis untuk mencapai dan mempertahankan otonomi, persatuan, dan identitas bagi satu populasi yang anggotanya berkehendak membentuk satu bangsa secara aktual atau potensial. Gerakan ideologis yang muncul pada abad ke-21 antara lain potensi kelokalan yang dimiliki satu bangsa sebagai kekuatan baru menghadapi era globalisasi. Multikulturalisme dalam konteks PSRN upaya membangun identitas nasional melalui spirit menghargai perbedaan antara seniman idividu dan kelompok individu yang direpresentasikan melalui keterlibatan perupa dari 31 provinsi dengan berbagai karakter budaya. Melalui peristiwa budaya yaitu PSRN mereka saling berbagi pengalaman, menceritakan berbagai hambatan-hambatan sehingga lahir percaya diri dan semangat solidaritas untuk menjaga integrasi bangsa melalui Gerakan sosial budaya dan karya yang diciptakan. Ditemukenali bagaimana peran individu, kelompok individu (Kurator Seni Rupa, Seniman, Kepala GNI, Kolektor, Pelaku Seni) dan institusi (Institusi Budaya baik pemerintah dan swasta, Perguruan Tinggi, Media) secara simultan bekerja mentransformasi dan mereproduksi perubahanstruktursosial. Ketigaunsurinibekerjadalamsatustruktur, saling-dukungsebagai agen perubahan. ......The purpose of this research with title National Gallery of Indonesia in the Formation of National Identity: Research on “Nusantara Fine Art Exhibition” at GNI, Jakarta (2001- 2017)”, with the consideration that GNI is one of the State Cultural Institutions, apart from the National Museum, Library National (National Library), and the National Archives Center of the Republic of Indonesia. These cultural institutions are at the center of government apart from being the landmarks of a modern nation, as well as a barometer of the nation's civilization so that they have an important role in the formation of the National Identity. The purpose of the study is to explain the long process of establishing the GNI and the role of the GNI in the formation of national identity through the policy of the Nusantara Fine Arts Exhibition (PSRN). This research uses historical methods: heuristics, verification/criticism interpretation, and historiography, with a structure methodology and a multiculturalism concept approach. The novelty of the methodology is "Exhibition History", which is how the historical movements of cultural institutions are studied through Fine Arts Exhibition events involving policies of state institutions, curators and artists. The main historical sources for the literature review are archives, documents and catalogs of fine arts exhibitions. The method of oral history with historical actors is the emphasis of this research. In the context of substance, the novelty of this research can be seen from the scope of the study, namely the dynamics of Indonesian art in the 2000s and 2010s, involving art outside Java and Bali. The historiographical studies conducted by Claire Holt (prehistoric art-1950s) and Helena Spajaard (1900-1995), did not significantly examine the role of art outside Java and Bali in Indonesian historiography. So it can be said that this study complements the previous study. The results of the study show (1) The process of forming the GNI which seems slow is inseparable from the "Political will" of the related government, (2) The gap in the art that occurred before the GNI was formed was inseparable from the Ethnonationalism policy which occurred as a result of the government system that tended to be centralized and hegemony by using the basis of ethnicity, race and ethnic group as the basis of nation and state, (3) The role of GNI is very central in the formation of National Identity through PSRN by providing space for appreciation of “minority” cultures, especially the Fine Arts outside Java and Bali. PSRN is getting the researcher’s attention due to its correlation to a major event where for the first time since Indonesian Independence, a Modern and Contemporary “Nusantara Fine Art Exhibition” held which involved 31 provinces. In this event, the curatorial concept appreciate the development of fine arts outside Java and Bali, before the GNI was formed it did not have a place on the national stage. The curatorial concept is designed to provide space for appreciation for minority cultures, especially outside Java and Bali. It seems that GNI has a "bargaining position" in the formation of national identity through the development of contemporary Indonesian modern art, namely in integrating the local potential of each region into an Indonesian spirit. The impact of PSRN on the formation of national identity can be seen from two things, namely the awareness of artists in the 2000s and 2010s in creating works that have social criticism themes as an effort to maintain the unity of the Republic of Indonesia, namely: (a) Political Actualization: Social-Horizontal Conflict, Religious Tolerance, Integration-disintegration, (b) Global Discourse: Environment, Secularity-Spirituality, Local Awakening, (c) Modernity- Contemporary and Diversity-Unity. These themes have not been identified in previous studies conducted by Claire Holt and Helena Spanjaard. Second, the occurrence of socio-cultural movements, especially outside Java and Bali, through the spirit of local community solidarity. The phenomenon of the rise of multiculturalism marks the historical movement of the development of art outside Java-Bali. The approach to the concept of National Identity in this study emphasizes ideological movements to achieve and maintain autonomy, unity, and identity for a population whose members wish to actually or potentially form a nation. The ideological movements that have emerged in the 21st century include the local potential of one nation as a new power in facing the era of globalization. Multiculturalism in the context of PSRN attempts to build a national identity through the spirit of respecting the differences between individual artists and groups of individuals represented through the involvement of artists from 31 provinces with various cultural characters. Through a cultural event, namely PSRN, they share experiences, tell various obstacles so that confidence and a spirit of solidarity is born to maintain national integration through the socio-cultural movement and the work created. It was identified how the role of individuals, groups of individuals (Fine Arts Curators, Artists, Heads of National Human Rights, Collectors, Artists) and institutions (Cultural Institutions both government and private, Universities, Media) simultaneously work to transform and reproduce changes in social structures. These three elements work in a single structure, mutually supporting as agents of change.

Abstrak :
Penulisan disertasi ini dilatari suatu penelitian lapangan yang dilakukan di lokasi pemukiman baru masyarakat Timor Timur di wilayah Timor Barat seperti; Kabupaten Kupang, Timor Tengah Selatan, Timor Tengah Utara, dan Belu. Hasil Jajak Pendapat Timor Timur 1999 berdampak pada pertikaian dan pergolakan antara kelompok prointegrasi dan prokemerdekaan sehingga terjadi pengungsian masyarakat secara masif ke Timor Barat. Pengungsian, penerimaan dan penanganan masyarakat Timor Timur di Timor Barat selama tahun 1999-2009 ditempatkan sebagai permasalahan utama. Karena itu, tujuan penelitian adalah menganalisis faktor-faktor yang melatarbelakangi pengungsian masyarakat Timor Timur ke Timor Barat pascajajak pendapat 1999. Kemudian menganalisis proses pengungsian masyarakat Timor Timur ke Timor Barat serta penerimaan dan penangananya selama 1999-2002. Selanjutnya, menganalisis kehidupan sosial, budaya, dan ekonomi masyarakat Timor Timur di lokasi-lokasi pemukiman baru Timor Barat dalam kurun waktu 2002-2009. Metode penelitian yang digunakan antara lain; studi lapangan, wawancara masyarakat dan pemerintah, serta studi pustaka dan sumber-sumber sezaman. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan beberapa temuan antara lain; Pertama, terbentuk ragam pergerakan yang berpola dalam proses pengungsian. Kedua, terdapat perubahan konkret yang bermanfaat bagi masyarakat pengungsi, namun ada juga kelemahan dalam penanganan sehingga menimbulkan banyak permasalahan. Ketiga, masyarakat pengungsi yang relokasi ke pemukiman baru mengalami dekadensi hidup sejahtera sehingga harus diberdayakan demi kesejahteraan. ......The writing of the dissertation is based on a field research conducted in the new settlements of East Timorese community in the West Timor region, such as Kupang Regency, South Central Timor Regency, North Central Timor Regency, and Belu Regency. The results of the 1999 East Timor Referendum had an impact on uprising and upheaval between pro-integration and proindependence groups. It was resulting massive displacement of people to West Timor. The displacement and handling of the East Timorese people in West Timor during 1999-2009 was formulated as the main problem. Therefore, the aim of this research is to analyze the factors behind the displacement of the East Timorese to West Timor after the 1999 Referendum. Then to analyze the process of refugee of the East Timorese to West Timor related to its acceptance and handling during 1999-2002. Furthermore, analyzing the social, cultural, and economic life of the East Timorese people in the new settlements West Timor in the period 2002-2009. The research methods include field studies, community and government interviews, sources of contemporary and literature studies. The results of research showed several findings; Firstly, various movements were patterned in the process of displacement. Secondly, there are concrete changes as beneficial for the refugee community, but also weaknesses in handling that cause many problems. Thirdly, refugee communities who have relocated to new settlements have experienced decadence of prosperity and must be empowered for their welfare.

Abstrak :
Disertasi ini membahas Budaya Risiko di Pulau Sebesi dalam perspektif Perubahan Sosial antara tahun 1883-2018. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian sejarah sosial dengan analisisnya menggunakan pendekatan struktural dari Ferdinand Braudel dan konsep tiga Budaya Risiko milik Steicher, et. al.(2018), Cornia, et. al.(2014), dan Beccera, et. al.(2020), yang ketiga konsep tersebut berakar dari Cultural Theory of Risk dari Mary Douglas dan Aaron Wildavsky di tahun 1982. Tsunami Selat Sunda pada 22 Desember 2018 telah membangkitkan kembali ingatan bersama tentang letusan Krakatau 1883. Bencana yang pada awalnya terlupakan oleh masyarakat di Pulau Sebesi, kembali diingat dan semakin menguat saat mereka mengalami tsunami 2018. Namun demikian, bencana tsunami tidak meninggalkan trauma bagi sebagian besar masyarakat Sebesi, bahkan mereka enggan untuk berpindah dari pulau tersebut, terlepas dari kenyataan bahwa ada ancaman bencana di sekitar lingkungan mereka. Tsunami 2018 pun secara nyata merubah persepsi mereka tentang gunung Anak Krakatau, yang awalnya sebagai pembawa berkah karena mendatangkan turis ke pulau mereka, menjadi ancaman yang bisa menimbulkan risiko bencana. Oleh karena itu, disertasi ini mengkaji pengalaman sosial masyarakat Sebesi yang terkena dampak tsunami 2018 dengan menganalisis faktor-faktor pemicu ancaman bahaya di Sebesi, menelaah alasan terbentuknya budaya risiko, serta materialisme budaya risiko pada masyarakat Sebesi. Hasil studi ini juga menjelaskan kehadiran pemerintah dalam penanggulangan bencana di pulau Sebesi. Namun demikian, hal yang menjadi sorotan dalam studi ini bahwa pemerintah cenderung datang saat telah terjadi peristiwa bencana, namun tidak tampak dalam keadaan normal. Keadaan yang terjadi di pulau Sebesi seolah mengembalikan status pendekatan penanganan bencana di Indonesia kepada disaster response based atau tindakan reaktif saat terjadi bencana. Padahal, paradigma pengelolaan bencana di Indonesia saat ini berbasis Pengurangan Risiko Bencana. Seringnya Anak Krakatau ber-erupsi menyebabkan masyarakat seakan terbiasa terhadap perilaku gunung ini. Risiko yang ada dalam keseharian masyarakat Pulau Sebesi telah menjelma menjadi bagian dari budaya kehidupan mereka. Rutinisasi membersamai Anak Krakatau telah mendorong munculnya budaya risiko di pulau Sebesi. ......The dissertation discusses Risk Culture on Sebesi Island during the period of 1883-2018 from the perspective of Social Change. This is social history research applying Ferdinand Braudel's structural approach analysed with the risk culture concept from Steicher, et. al. (2018); Cornia, et. al. (2014); and Beccera, et. al. (2020). The three concepts are rooted in the Cultural Theory of Risk from Mary Douglas and Aaron Wildavsky in 1982. The Sunda Strait tsunami on December 22 2018 has revived the memories of the 1883 Krakatau eruption. A disaster that was initially forgotten by the community on Sebesi Island, was remembered again and became even stronger when they experienced the 2018 tsunami. However, the tsunami disaster did not leave a trauma for most of the Sebesi people, in fact they were reluctant to move from the island, despite the fact that there was a threat of disaster around their environment. The 2018 tsunami also significantly changed their perception of Mount Anak Krakatau, which was initially a blessing because it brought tourists to their island, to become a threat that could pose a risk of disaster. Therefore, this dissertation examines the social experiences of the Sebesi community who were affected by the 2018 tsunami by analyzing the factors that trigger the danger in Sebesi, examining the reasons for the formation of a risk culture, as well as the materialism of the risk culture in the Sebesi community. The results of this study also explain the government's presence in disaster management on Sebesi Island. However, what is highlighted in this study is that the government tends to come when a disaster has occurred, but does not appear under normal circumstances. The situation that occurred on Sebesi Island seemed to return the status of the disaster management approach in Indonesia to disaster response based or reactive action when a disaster occurs. In fact, the current disaster management paradigm in Indonesia is based on Disaster Risk Reduction. The frequent eruptions of Anak Krakatau cause people to become accustomed to the behavior of this mountain. The risks that exist in the daily lives of the people of Sebesi Island have become part of their cultural life. The routinization of accompanying Anak Krakatau has encouraged the emergence of a risk culture on Sebesi Island.