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Abstrak :
Salah satu prioritas dalam agenda jangka panjang pengembangan energi baru dan terbarukan yang tertuang dalam Agenda Riset Nasional (ARN) adalah pengembangan bioetanol dari material lignoselulosa. Masalah yang mendasar dalam proses peningkatan produksi etanol dari material lignoselulosa termasuk bagas adalah bagaimana mengkonversi secara menyeluruh polisakarida menjadi monosakarida dengan memanfaatkan enzim-enzim yang spesifik. Untuk material bagas, yang dimaksud konversi menyeluruh adalah konversi selulosa, xylan dan selobiosa. Selain itu, keberadaan lignin dalam bagas dapat menghambat akses enzim dalam memecah polisakarida menjadi monosakarida, sehingga menyebabkan produksi etanol tidak optimal. Pada penelitian ini, telah dilakukan penelitian dengan teknologi proses baru untuk meningkatkan produksi etanol dari bagas melalui proses sakarifikasi dan fermentasi serempak (SSF). Penelitian yang dilakukan adalah mencakup proses menyeluruh perlakuan awal dengan beberapa jamur pelapuk putih (Ceriporiopsis subvermispora, Lentinus edodes dan Pleurotus ostreatus) dan steaming, hidrolisis menggunakan kombinasi multi enzim selulase, selobiasedan xylanase serta proses fermentasi dengan Saccharomyces cerevisiae AM 12 yang dilakukan secara serempak. Kombinasi enzim selulase-selobiase, selulase-xylanase dan selulase-selobiase-xylanase meningkatkan produksi etanol dari bagas dalam proses SSF. Konsentrasi etanol tertinggi yang dihasilkan dengan kombinasi enzim selulase-selobiase, selulase-xylanase dan selulase-selobiase-xylanase berturut-turut 6,9 g/L, 8,6 g/L dan 9,8 g/L, sedangkan dengan enzim selulase saja sebesar 6,0 g/L. Persentase ethanol yield (berbasis berat bagas) yang dihasilkan dengan kombinasi enzim tersebut berturut-turut sebesar 13,9%, 17,2% dan 19,7%, sedangkan dengan enzim selulase saja sebesar 11,95%. Pencapaian hasil teori (theoretical yield) tertinggi dengan menggunakan kombinasi enzim selulase-selobiase-xylanase sebesar 49,5%, sedangkan dengan enzim selulase saja pencapaian hasil teori sebesar 42,0%. Peningkatan produksi etanol dengan enzim selulase-selobiase membuktikan bahwa selain glukosa, selobiosa juga terbentuk dalam proses hidrolisis parsial selulosa oleh enzim selulase. Selobiosa yang terbentuk kemudian secara simultan dikonversikan menjadi glukosa oleh enzim selobiase, yang dibuktikan dengan peningkatan glukosa sebesar 16,2% setelah proses dihidrolisis dengan enzim selulase-selobiase. Selanjutnya glukosa yang terbentuk secara simultan dikonversi menjadi etanol oleh S. cerevisiae. Selain itu, pengingkatan jumlah etanol yang dihasilkan dengan kombinasi selulase-selobiase-xylanase juga membuktikan bahwa reaksi multi enzim dengan masing-masing substrat yang spesifik dapat terjadi dalam proses SSF. Reaksi multi enzim tersebut yaitu reaksi hidrolisis selulosa dengan selulase menjadi glukosa, hidrolisis xylan dengan xylanase menjadi xylosa dan hidrolisis selobiosa menjadi glukosa dengan enzim selobiase. Selanjutnya secara simultan glukosa dan xylosa yang terbentuk dikonversi menjadi etanol dengan S. cerevisiae. Hal ini dibuktikan dengan menurunnya kadar selulosa dan hemiselulosa setelah proses SSF berlangsung yaitu dari 50% dan 20% menjadi 22% dan 10%. Peningkatan sangat signifikan pada produksi etanol dari bagas dengan kombinasi enzim selulase-selobiase, selulase-xylanase dan selulase-selobiase-xylanase setelah dilakukan kombinasi perlakuan awal C. subvermispora dan steaming 180_C. Konsentrasi etanol yang dihasilkan dengan kombinasi enzim dan perlakuan awal tersebut berturut-turut sebesar 12,9 g/L, 13,5 g/L dan 18,2 g/L. Dengan persentase ethanol yield yang dihasilkan berbasis berat bagas sebesar 25,7%, 26,9% dan 36,4%. Peningkatan etanol yang dihasilkan setelah perlakuan awal dengan C. subvermispora dan steaming disebabkan adanya proses biodegradasi lignin oleh C. subvermispora dan pelarutan kristal-kristal selulosa dan hemiselulosa selama proses perlakuan dengan steaming berlangsung. Hal ini dibuktikan dengan adanya penurunan kadar lignin sebesar 26,5%, selulosa sebesar 9,4% dan hemiselulosa 14,1% setelah kombinasi perlakuan awal C. subvermispora dan steaming pada suhu 180_C. Ethanol yield tertinggi 36,4% dengan pencapaian theoretical yield sebesar 91,4%, yaitu dengan enzim selulase-selobiase-xylanase yang dikombinasikan dengan perlakuan awal C. subvermispora dan steaming 180_C. Pencapaian hasil teori ini meningkat sangat signifikan dibandingkan dengan etanol yang dihasilkan jika hanya menggunakan enzim selulase saja (42,03%). Peningkatan tersebut membuktikan bahwa kombinasi perlakuan awal C. subvermispora dan steaming yang dipadukan dengan hidrolisis multi enzim selulase-selobiase-xylanase sangat efektif dalam mengkonversi bagas menjadi etanol dalam proses SSF. Hal ini dibuktikan dengan menurunnya kadar selulosa dan hemiselulosa pada residu bagas setelah proses SSF berlangsung yaitu dari 50% dan 20% menjadi 4,5% dan 3,5%. One of priority in the long term National Research Agenda for renewable energy development is bioethanol production from lignocellulosic materials. The problem in increasing ethanol production from lignocellulosic material, including bagasse, is how to convert completely polysaccharide to monosaccharide using specific enzymes. Complete conversion of bagasse includes how to convert cellulose, xylan and cellobiose. Another problem is the existence of lignin in bagasse, which makes it difficult for enzyme to access and, thus to convert polysaccharide to monosaccharide. It causes unoptimal ethanol production. Novel technology to produce ethanol from bagasse by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) was carried out. Experiments included pre-treatments of bagasse with several white rot fungi (Ceriporiopsis subvermispora, Lentinus edodes and Pleurotus ostreatus) and steaming; hydrolysis with combination cellulase, cellobiase and xylanase enzymes; followed by fermentation using Saccharomycess cerevisiae AM 12. Combination of cellulase-cellobiase, cellulase-xylanase and cellulase-cellobiase-xylanase increased the ethanol production from bagasse. The highest ethanol concentration after hydrolysis with those enzymes were 6.9 g/L, 8.6 g/L and 9.8 g/L, respectively, compared to using cellulase only which was 6.0 g/L. The highest yield of ethanol (based on bagasse) with combination of those enzymes were 13.9%, 17.2% and 19.68%, while using cellulase only was 12.0%. The highest result of ethanol production in theoretical yield with combination of enzymes cellulase-cellobiase-xylanase is 49.5%, while using cellulase only 42.0%. Beside glucose, the increase of ethanol production from bagasse with cellulase-cellobiase enzymes confirmed that cellobiose was also produced in partial hydrolysis of cellulose with cellulase enzyme. Cellobiose was then converted to glucose simultaneously with cellobiase enzyme, this was revealed by the increase of glucose content about 16.2% after hydrolysis with cellulase-cellobiase enzymes. And then glucose was converted to ethanol simultaneously with S. cerevisiae. The increase of ethanol yields with combination of cellulase-cellobiase-xylanase enzymes confirmed that multi enzymes reaction took place on specific substrates. This multiple reactions includes hydrolysis of cellulose to glucose by cellulase, hydrolysis of xylan to xylose by xylanase enzyme and hydrolysis of cellobiose to glucose by cellobiase enzyme. Then glucose and xylose were converted to ethanol simultaneously by S. cerevisiae. This phenomenon was revealed by weight loss of cellulose and hemicellulose of bagasse after SSF process from 50% and 20% to 22% and 10%, respectively. The significance increase of the ethanol production was achieved after pre-treatment with combination of C. subvermispora and steaming 180_C. The highest ethanol production at combination of cellulase-cellobiase, cellulase-xylanase and cellulase-cellobiase-xylanase after pre-treatment C. subvermispora and steaming 180_C were 12.9 g/L, 13.5 g/L and 18.2 g/L, respectively. The highest yield of ethanol (based on bagasse) with those combination were 25.7%, 26.9% dan 36.4%, respectively. The increase of ethanol yield after pre-treatment with C. subvermispora and steaming was caused by lignin biodegradation of bagasse with C. subvermispora and dissolution of cellulose and hemicelluose crystalline in steaming treatment process. This was revealed by lignin loss about 26.5%, cellulose loss about 9.4% and hemicellulose loss about 14.1% after pre-treatment with combination of C. subvermispora and steaming at 180_C. The highest achievement of ethanol production in theoretical yield with combination cellulase-cellobiase-xylanase after pre-treatment with combination of C. subvermispora and steaming at 180_C was 91.4%. This was a very significant increase compared to the ethanol production in theoretical yield when using cellulase only (42.0%). This increase of ethanol yield revealed that combination of pre-treatment and hydrolysis of multi enzymes very effectively converting bagasse to ethanol in SSF. This phenomenon was confirmed by weight loss of cellulose and hemicellulose in bagasse after SSF process from 50% and 20% to 4.5% and 3.5%.

Abstrak :
Sistem nanoemulsi ganda air-minyak-air (w/o/w) merupakan dispersi emulsi tunggal air-minyak (w/o) dalam air sebagai fasa eksternal. Beberapa tahun terakhir ini, sistem nanoemulsi ganda mulai banyak dikembangkan dalam industri nutrasetikal dengan mempertimbangkan keunggulannya dalam melindungi dan mengenkapsulasi senyawa bioaktif yang larut dalam air maupun dalam minyak, serta melepaskan dan menghantarkannya dalam sistem pencernaan tubuh. Pada penelitian ini dikembangkan suatu sistem nanoemulsi w/o/w yang dimuati oleh komponen bioaktif betasianin dari ekstrak naga merah dan kurkumin dari ekstrak temulawak yang memiliki kesamaan sifat fungsional sebagai antioksidan. Pemuatan senyawa hidrofilik dan hidrofobik secara bersamaan dalam sistem nanoemulsi w/o/w diharapkan lebih meningkatkan sifat fungsionalnya. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mendapatkan nanoemulsi w/o/w yang stabil dan dapat menghantarkan betasianin sebagai senyawa bioaktif hidrofilik dan kurkumin sebagai senyawa bioaktif hidrofobik. Emulsifikasi dua tahap dilakukan dengan menggunakan tiga cara: ultraturrax – high pressure homogenizer (HPH), HPH - HPH, dan ultrasonic – HPH. Adapun yang menjadi variabel bebas dalam penelitian ini adalah konsentrasi emulsi w/o dan konsentrasi surfaktan Tween 80. Nanoemulsi ganda yang dimuati ekstrak jahe dan ekstrak buah naga merah, dipreparasi menggunakan HPH–HPH dengan konsentrasi emulsi w/o 25% b/b dan Tween 80 2,2% b/b terpilih sebagai formula terbaik dengan karakteristik: diameter droplet 201 nm, PDI 0,17, potensial zeta -37 mV dan fasa minyak terpisah dari nanoemulsi 14% v/v. Nanoemulsi ekstrak jahe dan buah naga merah dengan konsentrasi kurkumin 7–121 µg/mL dan konsentrasi betasianin 4–7 µg/mL, memberikan nilai penangkap radikal bebas (IC50) 931–1179 µg/mL, efisiensi enkapsulasi kurkumin 88–97% dan betasianin 97–98%, serta bioaksesibilitas kurkumin 44–72% dan betasianin 35–65%. Nanoemulsi ganda yang dimuati ekstrak temulawak dan ekstrak buah naga merah, dipreparasi menggunakan ultraturrax–HPH dengan konsentrasi emulsi w/o 15% b/b dan Tween 80 1,5% b/b merupakan formula terbaik dengan karakteristik: diameter droplet 189 nm, PDI 0,16, potensial zeta -32 mV dan fasa minyak terpisah dari nanoemulsi 5% v/v. Nanoemulsi ekstrak temulawak dan buah naga merah dengan konsentrasi kurkumin 807–2246 µg/mL dan konsentrasi betasianin 3–7 µg/mL, memeberikan IC50 908–1074 µg/mL, efisiensi enkapsulasi kurkumin 88–97% dan betasianin 97–98%, serta bioaksesibilitas kurkumin 44–72% dan betasianin 35–65%. Konsentrasi senyawa kurkumin dalam ekstrak temulawak, ekstrak jahe dan betasianin dalam ekstrak buah naga merah berturut-turut adalah 32,3%, 1,9% dan 0,1% b/b. Berdasarkan nilai IC50, aktivitas ekstrak temulawak (92 µg/mL) lebih rendah dari vitamin C (4 µg/mL), dan lebih besar daripada ekstrak jahe (431 µg/mL) dan ekstrak buah naga merah (1504 µg/mL). Dapat disimpulkan bahwa ekstrak temulawak dan ekstrak buah naga merah dengan konsentrasi senyawa bioaktif total rendah dalam nanoemulsi ganda w/o/w (0,2%–0,7% b/b), memberikan nilai IC50 9–12 kali lebih besar dari IC50 ekstrak temulawak dan buah naga merah dalam bentuk alami. Hasil uji toksisitas akut terhadap hewan mencit jantan dan betina menunjukkan bahwa nanoemulsi ganda ekstrak temulawak dan ekstrak buah naga merah tidak menyebabkan toksisitas akut yang berbahaya, sehingga nanoemulsi ganda ini aman dan berpotensi sebagai produk tengahan pangan fungsional. ......The water-in-oil-in-water (w/o/w) double nanoemulsion system is a water-in-oil (w/o) single emulsion dispersion in an external water phase. In recent years, double nanoemulsion systems have been developed in the nutraceutical industry due to their advantages in protecting and encapsulating bioactive compounds that are soluble in water and in oil, as well as releasing and delivering them in the digestive system of the body. Water-in-oil-in-water nanoemulsion formulations loaded with bioactive compounds having antioxidant properties, betacyanin from red dragon fruit extract and curcumin from ginger extract, have been developed in this study. The simultaneous encapsulation of hydrophilic and hydrophobic bioactive compounds in a w/o/w nanoemulsion system is expected to further improve their functional properties. The aim of this study was to obtain the most stable w/o/w nanoemulsion that could simultaneously encapsulate and deliver betacyanin and curcumin, a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic bioactive compound, respectively. The two-stage emulsification was carried out using three homogenization methods: ultraturrax–high pressure homogenizer (HPH), HPH–HPH, and ultrasonic–HPH. The independent variables in this study were the w/o emulsion concentration and the Tween 80 surfactant concentration. The double nanoemulsion loaded with ginger extract and red dragon fruit extract prepared using the HPH–HPH method with a w/o emulsion concentration of 25% w/w and a Tween 80 concentration of 2% w/w was found to be the formulation with the least oil phase separation of 14% v/v. This nanoemulsion had a mean droplet diameter of 201 nm, PDI of 0.17, zeta potential of -37 mV, bioactive concentration of 72–121 µg/mL (curcumin) and 4–7 µg/mL (betacyanin), encapsulation efficiency of 88–97% (curcumin) and 97–98% (betacyanin), bioaccessibility of 44–72% (curcumin) and 35–65% (betacyanin), and, free radical scavenger value (IC50) value of 931–1179 µg/mL. The double nanoemulsion loaded with temulawak extract and red dragon fruit extract prepared using the ultraturrax–HPH method with a w/o emulsion concentration of 15% w/w and a Tween 80 concentration of 1.5% w/w was found to be the the most stable formulation overall with oil phase separation of only 5% v/v. This double nanoemulsion had a mean droplet diameter of 189 nm, PDI of 0.16, zeta potential of -32 mV, bioactive concentration of 807–2246 µg/mL (curcumin) and 3–7 µg/mL (betacyanin), encapsulation efficiency of 88–97% (curcumin) and 97–98% (betacyanin), bioaccessibility of 44–72% (curcumin) and 35–65% (betacyanin), and, IC50 value of 908–1074 µg/mL. The concentration of curcumin in ginger extract, ginger extract and betacyanin in red dragon fruit extract were 32.3%, 1.9% and 0.1% w/w, respectively. Based on the IC50 value, the activity of the temulawak extract (92 µg/mL) was higher than those of ginger extract (431 µg/mL) and red dragon fruit extract (1504 µg/mL), although it still lower than that of vitamin C (4 µg/mL). It can be concluded that ginger extract and red dragon fruit extract with a low total concentration of bioactive compounds in the double nanoemulsion (0.2%–0.7% w/w) gave IC50 value 9–12 times greater than the IC50 values of the extract in their natural form. The results of the in-vivo acute toxicity test on male and female mice showed that the double nanoemulsion of temulawak extract and red dragon fruit extract did not cause acute toxicity. Therefore, this double nanoemulsion is shown to safe and has the potential to be used as a functional food intermediate product.

Abstrak :
ABSTRAK Gas nitrogen oksida antara lain adalah NO, NO2, dan N2O mempunyai peranan penting dalam perubahan kimia pada lapisan ozon. Dinitrogen monoksida (N2O) merupakan gas rumah kaca yang harus mendapat perhatian karena memiliki potensi pemanasan global yang besar. Biofiltrasi adalah proses pengolahan polutan gas di dalam suatu unggun medium, dan polutan akan mengalami degradasi oleh mikroorganisme. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengembangkan sistem biofilter dalam mereduksi emisi gas buang N2O melalui pemanfaatan kompos sebagai medium filter, dengan melakukan kajian pada parameter-parameter operasi biofilter serta penyusunan model biosorpsi dan biodegradasi. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa dari aspek karakteristik medium dan kinerja medium sebagai filter dalam mereduksi polutan gas N2O, medium kompos berbasis kotoran kambing lebih baik daripada medium kompos berbasis kotoran sapi, dengan rata-rata efisiensi reduksi mencapai 65% dan stabil hingga 200 jam pada kedalaman medium 100 cm, laju alir gas N2O 88 cm3/menit, dan kandungan air 60%. Proses biofiltrasi gas N2O dengan medium kompos dapat dimodelkan dengan baik oleh model kinetika berbasis mekanisme Michaelis-Menten Adsorpsi, dengan parameter kinetika VMax, KM, dan KN2O berturut-turut adalah 14,847 g/m3.jam ; 0,131 g/m3 ; 1,343 x 10-3 m3/g untuk medium kompos ruah, dan 461 g/m3.jam ; 558 g/m3 ; 0,22 m3/g untuk medium pelet kompos.

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ABSTRACT Nitrogen oxides i.e. NO, NO2, and N2O have an important role in chemical changes in the ozone layer. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a greenhouse gas that should get attention because it has a great potential for global warming. Biofiltration is the processing of gas pollutants in a medium bed, and pollutants will be degraded by microorganisms. This research aims to develop a biofilter system to reduce N2O emissions using compost as a filter medium, by studying the parameters of biofilter operation as well as the developing of biosorption and the biodegradation model. The results show that in term of medium characteristics and the performance in reducing N2O, goat manure-based compost medium is better than cow manure-based compost medium, with an average removal efficiency reached 65% and stable up to 200 hours at medium depth of 100 cm, N2O gas flow rate of 88 cm3/minute, and water content of 60%. Biofiltration of N2O with manure-based compost medium can be well modeled by the kinetic based model of Michaelis-Menten for adsorption mechanism, with kinetics parameters VMax, KM, and KN2O 14,847 g/m3.hour ; 0,131 g/m3 ; 1,343 x 10-3 m3/g for bulk compost, and 461 g/m3.hour ; 558 g/m3 ; 0,22 m3/g for pelletized compost.

Abstrak :
Previous research of thermal co-pyrolysis of biomass-plastics where plastics function as hydrogen donor to induce synergistic effect on non-oxygenated fraction of bio-oil has reached a condition that there was a difficulty of separating non-oxygenated compounds from oxygenated compounds either at low heating rate. It was suspected that the content of high molecular weight of compounds especially polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in bio-oil retarded this separation. At low heating rate, most of co-pyrolysis until recently have been conducted in fixed bed and auger reactors. The present work proposed a stirred tank reactor as the reactor alternative to avoid formation of PAH in bio-oil. A series of experiments of co-pyrolysis of corn cobs and polypropylene at low heating rate (5oC/min) with maximum temperature of 500oC has been conducted with the ultimate goal of producing non-oxygenated fraction of bio-oil similar to diesel fuel. The qualities of the fraction targeted were its viscosity, double bond content and branching number of carbon chains. The values of these properties in diesel fuel are 2.7 cStokes, 0%, 0.4, respectively. The experiments involved 3 different reactors, i.e. the first, a stirred tank reactor with its aspect ratio (the ratio of the height to the diameter) of 2.0, the second, a stirred tank reactor with aspect ratio of 1.35 and the third, a dispecement reactor. Nitrogen gas as a sweeping gas was predicted to generate local turbulence favouring convective heat transfer. The work has resulted in some important results, i.e. the first, there was phase separation between oxygenated and non-oxygenated fractions, the second, synergistic effects in copyrolysis have been achieved both in bio-oil and non-oxygenated fraction yields, the third, non-oxygenated fraction had viscosity of 2.03 + 6.47% cStokes, the fourth, nonoxygenated fraction contained only 6-7% double bonds, which eases the hydrogenation reaction in further processing for double bond saturation, the fifth, non-oxygenated fraction had average branching number of 0.57, slightly above that of diesel fuel, which is unfavourable to reach short ignition delay time in the combustion, the sixth, the aspect ratio of the reactor significantly affected the extent of biomass pyrolysis, but not polypropylene pyrolysis.

Abstrak :
Konsumsi minyak bensin atau gasoline untuk bahan bakar mesin transportasi dalam negeri selama ini telah melebihi kapasitas unit produksi. Sebagian besar produk gasoline dihasilkan dari unit perengkahan katalitik menggunakan umpan utama fraksi gasoil. Upaya untuk meningkatkan yield dan kualitas oktana gasoline umumnya dilakukan melalui seleksi katalis dan optimalisasi kondisi proses, meskipun demikian sifat umpan juga mempengaruhi produk akhir. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menemukan dan mempelajari metode proses alternatif peningkatan yield dan angka oktana gasoline dengan cara modifikasi umpan menggunakan campuran vacuum gasoil dengan trigliserida dan asam lemak jenuh dan tak jenuh berbasis sawit. Eksperimen reaksi perengkahan dilakukan pada fluid-bed reaktor dengan umpan campuran vacuum gasoil dengan minyak sawit murni, distilat asam lemak dan asam oleat dalam rentang konsentrasi 0 sampai 15% menggunakan katalis zeolite REY pada suhu 530oC dan rasio katalis-umpan 5,5 g/g. Perengkahan umpan menghasilkan produk gas dan cair serta coke yang terdeposit dalam katalis. Produk gas dianalisa menggunakan GC refinery gas analyzer untuk menentukan komposisi gas hidrokarbon C1, C2, C3 & C4 serta H2. Produk cair dianalisa menggunakan GC simulated distillation untuk menentukan yield gasoline, LCO dan bottom. Angka oktana gasoline dianalisa dengan GC DHA. Kadar air dalam produk cair dianalisa dengan metode Karl-Fischer. Analisa coke dengan metode Infrared dan keasaman katalis dengan metode NH3-TPD. Dari hasil penelitian didapatkan bahwa perengkahan VGO dengan 5%RBDPO meningkatkan yield gasoline dari 42,9% menjadi 46,9% dan angka oktana dari 91,8 menjadi 96,2. Perengkahan VGO dengan 5%(RBDPO_PFAD) dapat meningkatkan yield gasoline menjadi 48,3% dengan angka oktana 97,5. Perengkahan VGO dengan 5%(RBDPO_Oleic acid) dapat meningkatkan yield gasoline menjadi 45,2% dengan angka oktana 98,2. Kandungan asam lemak jenuh dan tak jenuh dalam umpan berperan dalam reaksi-reaksi perengkahan, isomerisasi, transfer hidrogen dan aromatisasi yang mempengaruhi struktur yield produk dan komposisi hidrokarbon n-parafin, iso-parafin, olefin, naften dan aromatik. Penambahan RBDPO, PFAD dan Oleic acid pada umpan VGO menyebabkan kenaikan komposisi hidrokarbon iso-parafin dan olefin dalam gasoline. The consumption of gasoline for transportation fuel in domestic has exceeded the production unit capacity. Most of gasoline is produced from fluid catalytic cracking unit that proceeds gasoil fraction as main feedstock. Some efforts to upgrade gasoline yield and its octane quality usually is perfomed by catalyst selection and process optimization, eventhough feed nature also influence to the end-product. This research work was aimed to find out and learn the alternative method in fluid catalytic cracking process to upgrade gasoline yield and octane quality by means of feed modification using mixture of vacuum gasoil with palms triglycerides and fatty acids having single and double-bonds. The experimental catalytic reaction was performed at fluid-bed reactor of advance cracking evaluation unit utilizing mixture of vacuum gasoil with pure palm oil, fatty acid distillate and oleic acid over zeolite REY catalysts at reaction temperature of 530oC and catalyst oil ratio 5.5 g/g. The cracking of feedstocks under process condition resulted in gaseous and liquid products, as well as coke deposited on catalyst. The gaseous product was analyzed by online gas chromatography to identify dry gas of C1, C2 & H2, and LPG of C3, C4 hydrocarbons. Liquid product was analyzed using gas chromatography of simulated distillation to obtain yields of gasoline, light cycle oil and bottoms. Gasoline octane number was analyzed using GC DHA method. Water contained in liquid product was analyzed by Karl Fischer method. Coke was analyzed by online Infrared analyzer and catalyst acidity was analyzed using NH3 TPD method. From the reaseach work, it was found that the cracking of VGO with 5%RBDPO could increase gasoline yield from 42.9% to 46.9% and octane number from 91.8 to 96.2. The cracking of VGO with 5%RBDPO PFAD increased gasoline yield to 48.3% and octane number to 97.5 meanwhile cracking of VGO with 5%RBDPO Oleic acid increased gasoline yield to 45.2% and octane number to 98.2. The role of single and double-bonds fatty acids in feedstock appeared to play in reactions of cracking, isomerization, hydrogen transfer and aromatization that influenced the product yields structure and hydrocarbon composition of nparaffins, isoparaffins, olefins, naphthene and aromatics. The addition of RBDPO, PFAD dan Oleic acid in VGO had caused increase of hydrocarbon composition of iso-paraffins and olefin in gasoline

Abstrak :
Korosi merupakan proses alami yang terjadi pada setiap logam, sehingga perlu dilakukan upaya untuk meminimalisir laju korosi tersebut. Salah satu cara yang dapat digunakan adalah dengan menambahkan inhibitor pada media korosifnya. Inhibitor adalah penambahan sejumlah kecil senyawa kimia ke dalam media korosif dan menyebabkan laju korosi menurun. Penggunaan inhibitor yang ramah dan aman bagi lingkungan merupakan pilihan yang penting pada saat ini, terutama untuk industri farmasi, industri makanan dan minuman. Upaya mensinergikan bio inhibitor yang berasal dari alam adalah salah satu alternatif agar bio-inhibitor memiliki performa yang lebih baik. Pada penelitian ini digunakan bahan alam ekstrak daun ketapang, ekstrak sekam padi. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui kemampuan masing-masing inhibitor dan mengetahui sinergisitas ekstrak daun ketapang dan KI, ekstrak sekam padi dan KI. Metoda yang dilakukan adalah dengan weightloss. Kemudian ditinjau dari termodinamika dan kinetika serta dilakukan Analisa SEM. Adapun pengukuran elektrokimia dilakukan sebagai informasi tambahan tentang jenis inhibitor yang digunakan. Keberhasilan sinergisitas dilihat dari kenaikan nilai efisiensi inhibisi sebelum dan sesudah bersinergi dan nilai sinergisitas yang lebih besar dari satu. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa Sinergisitas ekstrak daun ketapang dan KI dengan penambahan ekstrak sekam padi memiliki sinergisitas yang sangat baik untuk semua suhu (313K,333K dan 353K). Reaksi berlangsung secara spontan, adsorpsi berlangsung secara chemisorption dan lapisan pasivasi yang terbentuk cenderung stabil. Sehingga sinergisitas ini dapat dijadikan alternatif sebagai bio inhibitor pada larutan asam H2SO4 1M. Komposisi optimum untuk masing-masing inhibitor dan KI adalah 500 ppm EDK+50 ppm KI+750 ppm ESP, kenaikan suhu dari 313K, 333K dan 353K adsorpsi berlangsung secara chemisorption, ditandai dengan nilai ΔGads semakin negatif (< 20 kJ/mol.K). ......Corrosion is a natural process that occurs in every metal, efforts need to be made to minimize the corrosion rate. One method that can be used is by adding inhibitors to the corrosive media. An inhibitor is the addition of a small amount of a chemical compound into a corrosive medium and causes the corrosion rate to decrease. The use of friendly and environmentally safe inhibitors is an important choice at this time. Efforts to synergize bio-inhibitors from nature are one alternative so that bio-inhibitors have better performance. In this study used natural ingredients terminalia catappa leaves extract and rice husk extract. The purpose of this study was to determine the ability of each inhibitor and determine the synergy of terminalia catappa leaves extract and KI, rice husk extract and KI. The method used is weight loss. Then it is reviewed from thermodynamics and kinetics and SEM analysis. The electrochemical measurements are carried out as additional information about the type of inhibitor used. The success of synergy can be seen from the increase in the value of inhibition efficiency before and after synergy and the greater synergistic value than one. The results showed that the synergy of terminalia catappa leaves extract and KI with the addition of rice husk extract had excellent synergy for all temperatures (313K, 333K and 353K). The reaction takes place spontaneously, adsorption takes place in chemisorption and the passivation layer formed tends to be stable. So that this synergy can be used as an alternative as a bio-inhibitor in 1M H2SO4 solution. The optimum composition for each inhibitor and KI is 500 ppm EDK + 50 ppm KI + 750 ppm ESP, temperature rise of 313K, 333K and 353K adsorption takes place in chemisorption, indicated by the value of ΔGads getting negative (< 20 kJ / mol.K).

Abstrak :
Biodiesel adalah bahan bakar nabati terbarukan sebagai alternatif untuk bahan bakar diesel fosil yang memiliki banyak keunggulan. Namun, kandungan asam lemak tak jenuh yang tinggi menyebabkan ketidakstabilan oksidasi selama penyimpanan. Sejumlah aditif telah digunakan dan dikembangkan untuk mengatasi masalah ini seperti penggunaan antioksidan berbasis senyawa fenolik. Pyrogallol dilaporkan sebagai salah satu antioksidan fenolik terbaik untuk biodiesel. Akan tetapi, pyrogallol memiliki kelarutan yang rendah dalam larutan minyak. Dalam penelitian ini, kelarutan pyrogallol ditingkatkan dengan mensintesis turunan pirogallol melalui reaksi antara pyrogallol dan metil linoleat dengan menggunakan radikal 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl atau DPPH. Metode spektrofotometri digunakan untuk uji kelarutan. Potensi antioksidan diperiksa menggunakan penentuan jumlah asam selama periode penyimpanan 4 minggu serta uji Rancimat untuk melihat kinerjanya dalam kondisi oksidasi yang dipercepat dan dibandingkan dengan senyawa aditif lain serta penggunaan surfaktan. Reaksi sintesis ini menghasilkan molekul yang memiliki berat molekul 418 g/mol, struktur molekul yang dihasilkan dari ¹H-NMR, ¹³C-NMR dan 2D-HMQC adalah methyl (10E,12E)- 9-(2,6-dihydroxyphenoxy)octadeca-10,12-dienoate dan isomer methyl (9E,11E)-13-(2,6-dihydroxyphenoxy)octadeca-9,11-dienoate dengan yield 12.86% yang merupakan turunan pirogalol yang memiliki ikatan C-O baru dengan metil linoleat. Dibandingkan dengan pyrogallol dan tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), turunan pyrogallol memiliki kelarutan tertinggi yaitu 19.438g/l biodiesel serta stabilitas angka asam dan bilangan iodin terbaik selama masa penyimpanan 4 pekan. Hasil induction time (IP) Rancimat dari produk tercatat 16.17 jam, hasil ini berada di atas standar SNI 7182:2015, ASTM D 6751, dan EN 14112 yaitu 6 jam. ......Biodiesel is a renewable plant-based fuel as an alternative for fossil diesel fuel which has many advantages. However, its high content of unsaturated fatty acid causes an oxidation instability during storage. Numerous additives have been used and developed to overcome this problem such as the application of phenolic compound-based antioxidants. Pyrogallol is reported as one of the best phenolic antioxidants for biodiesel. Unfortunately, pyrogallol has a low solubility in oil solution. In this research, pyrogallol solubility is increased by preparing a pyrogallol derivative through a reaction between pyrogallol and methyl linoleate in the presence of radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl or DPPH. The spectrophotometric method was used for solubility test. Antioxidant potential was examined using acid number determination during a 4 week storage period as well as the Rancimat test to see its performance under accelerated oxidation condition and compared to the other biodiesels additives. The reaction produced a molecule which has a molecular weight of 418 g/mol. By using ¹H-NMR, ¹³C-NMR and 2D-HMQC the molecule was suggested to be methyl (10E,12E)- 9-(2,6-dihydroxyphenoxy)octadeca-10,12-dienoate and isomer methyl (9E,11E)-13-(2,6-dihydroxyphenoxy)octadeca-9,11-dienoate with a yield of 12.86%. Compared to pyrogallol and tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), the pyrogallol derivative has the highest solubility with a value of 19.438g/l biodiesel, better activity in acid number and iodine value during 4 weeks storage. The induction period (IP) result of the pyrogallol derivative is 16.17 hours, above the SNI 7182:2015, ASTM D 6751 and EN 14112 standards in the accelerated oxidation (rancimat) test.

Abstrak :
[ABSTRAK
Industri bahan bakar bio berkembang dengan cepat sebagai konsekuensi dari naiknya harga minya dan meningkatnya kepedulian terhadapa perubahan iklim global. Produksi biodiesel dari transesterifikasi minyak nabati saat ini merupakan rute yang utama untuk menghasilkan bahan bakar nabati (BBN) untuk mesin diesel. Namun, biodiesel memiliki viskositas tinggi, titik kabaut dan tuang yang tinggi, emisi nitrogen oksida (NOx) yang lebih tinggi, densitas energi rendah dan keausan injektor/mesin tinggi. Beberapa rute telah dicoba untuk mengurangi viskositas, seperti blending minyak nabati dengan bahan bakar diesel, mikroemulsi dengan alkohol, pirolisis dan hidrodeoksigenasi (HDO). Solar terbarukan melalui HDO dapat dihasilkan dari beragam bahan baku minyak nabati seperti minyak sawit dan minyak jarak pagar tanpa mengorbankan kualitas bahan bakar. Reaksi pembentukan solar terbarukan melalui HDO minyak nabati melibatkan katalis untuk menurunkan energi aktivasi reaksi dan meningkatkan selektifitasnya. Jenis katalis yang digunakan didalam studi ini adalah katalis berbasi Pd dan berbasis NiMo yang disanggakan pada ZAL atau C. Metode microwave polyol process (MP) cocok untuk preparasi katalis berbasis Pd sedangkan metode rapid cooling (RC) cocok untuk preparasi katalis berbasis NiMo. HDO asam oleat sebagai senyawa model, minyak sawit dan minyak jarak pagar dilakukan pada suhu 375°C dan 400°C dengan tekanan H2 15 bar didalam reaktor autoclave 250 ml semibatch berpengaduk. Didalam HDO, katalis Pd/ZAL-1 selektif terhadap jalur dekarboksilasi sedangakan katalis NiMo/ZAL selektif terhadap jalur dekarboksilasi dan dekarbonilasi katalitik. Soalr terbarukan yang dihasilkan dari HDO memiliki densitas dan viskositas yang sesuai sesuai dan indeks setana yang lebih tinggi disertai dengan kesetaraan dalam kualitasnya dengan solar komersial turunan minyak bumi namun sedikit lebih rendah daripada solar terbarukan komersial (NExBTL®).;

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ABSTRACT
The biofuels industry is growing rapidly as a result of high petroleum prices and increasing concerns about global climate change. Biodiesel production from trans-esterification of vegetable oils is currently the primary route for production of diesel engine biofuels from vegetable oils. However, biodiesel still has higher viscosity, higher cloud point and pour point, higher nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions, lower energy density, and higher injector/engine wear. Several routes have been tried for reducing this viscosity, such as diluted vegetable oil with diesel fuel, microemulsification with alcohols, pyrolysis and hydrodeoxygenation (HDO). Renewable diesel through HDO can be produced from many kind of vegetable oil feeed stock such as palm oil (edible oil) and jatropha curcas (non-edible oil)without compromising fuel quality. Forming reaction of renewable diesel through HDO vegetable oil involves catalyst to decrease the activation energy of the reaction and increase its selectivity. The type of catalyst used in this study is Pd and NiMo supported on ZAL or C. Microwave polyol method (MP) is suitable for preparation of Pd-based catalyst while rapid cooling method (RC) is suitable for preparation of NiMo-based catalyst. The HDO of oleic acid as model compound, palm oil and jatropha curcas oil were carried out at temperature of 375°C and 400°C with H2 pressure of 15 bar in a 250 mL semibatch stirred autoclave reactor. In HDO, Pd/ZAL-1 catalyst was selective to decarboxylation route while NiMo/ZAL was selective to decarboxylation and catalytic decarbonilation. Renewable diesel synthesized through HDO have suitable density and viscosity and quite high cetane index with similar in their quality with comercial diesel derived from crude oil but slightly lower than comercial renewable diesel (NExBTL®).;The biofuels industry is growing rapidly as a result of high petroleum prices and increasing concerns about global climate change. Biodiesel production from trans-esterification of vegetable oils is currently the primary route for production of diesel engine biofuels from vegetable oils. However, biodiesel still has higher viscosity, higher cloud point and pour point, higher nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions, lower energy density, and higher injector/engine wear. Several routes have been tried for reducing this viscosity, such as diluted vegetable oil with diesel fuel, microemulsification with alcohols, pyrolysis and hydrodeoxygenation (HDO). Renewable diesel through HDO can be produced from many kind of vegetable oil feeed stock such as palm oil (edible oil) and jatropha curcas (non-edible oil)without compromising fuel quality. Forming reaction of renewable diesel through HDO vegetable oil involves catalyst to decrease the activation energy of the reaction and increase its selectivity. The type of catalyst used in this study is Pd and NiMo supported on ZAL or C. Microwave polyol method (MP) is suitable for preparation of Pd-based catalyst while rapid cooling method (RC) is suitable for preparation of NiMo-based catalyst. The HDO of oleic acid as model compound, palm oil and jatropha curcas oil were carried out at temperature of 375°C and 400°C with H2 pressure of 15 bar in a 250 mL semibatch stirred autoclave reactor. In HDO, Pd/ZAL-1 catalyst was selective to decarboxylation route while NiMo/ZAL was selective to decarboxylation and catalytic decarbonilation. Renewable diesel synthesized through HDO have suitable density and viscosity and quite high cetane index with similar in their quality with comercial diesel derived from crude oil but slightly lower than comercial renewable diesel (NExBTL®)., The biofuels industry is growing rapidly as a result of high petroleum prices and increasing concerns about global climate change. Biodiesel production from trans-esterification of vegetable oils is currently the primary route for production of diesel engine biofuels from vegetable oils. However, biodiesel still has higher viscosity, higher cloud point and pour point, higher nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions, lower energy density, and higher injector/engine wear. Several routes have been tried for reducing this viscosity, such as diluted vegetable oil with diesel fuel, microemulsification with alcohols, pyrolysis and hydrodeoxygenation (HDO). Renewable diesel through HDO can be produced from many kind of vegetable oil feeed stock such as palm oil (edible oil) and jatropha curcas (non-edible oil)without compromising fuel quality. Forming reaction of renewable diesel through HDO vegetable oil involves catalyst to decrease the activation energy of the reaction and increase its selectivity. The type of catalyst used in this study is Pd and NiMo supported on ZAL or C. Microwave polyol method (MP) is suitable for preparation of Pd-based catalyst while rapid cooling method (RC) is suitable for preparation of NiMo-based catalyst. The HDO of oleic acid as model compound, palm oil and jatropha curcas oil were carried out at temperature of 375°C and 400°C with H2 pressure of 15 bar in a 250 mL semibatch stirred autoclave reactor. In HDO, Pd/ZAL-1 catalyst was selective to decarboxylation route while NiMo/ZAL was selective to decarboxylation and catalytic decarbonilation. Renewable diesel synthesized through HDO have suitable density and viscosity and quite high cetane index with similar in their quality with comercial diesel derived from crude oil but slightly lower than comercial renewable diesel (NExBTL®).]

Abstrak :
Formaldehida merupakan salah satu polutan gas yang menyebabkan gangguan kesehatan sampai tingkat kanker nasofaring. Sintesis karbon aktif berbentuk serbuk dari bambu Petung dengan aditif nanopartikel perak atau tembaga digunakan sebagai penjerap polutan. Kemampuan adsorpsi formaldehida dalam sistem tumpak dan sistem sinambung digunakan untuk mendapatkan model adsorpsi formaldehida.Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa karbon aktif dengan aditif nanopartikel Perak mempunyai luas permukaan 683 m2/g, diameter pori rata-rata 2,7 nm (mesopori dan mikropori), ukuran nanopartikel 2-6 nm dan terdapat gugus hidroksil pada permukaan karbon. Sifat dan kemampuan karbon aktif dengan aditif nanopartikel Perak menunjukkan hasil yang lebih baik daripada karbon aktif dengan nanopartikel Tembaga. Kemampuan adsorpsi formaldehida pada karbon aktif dengan aditif nanopartikel Perak mencapai 2,7 kali lebih tinggi daripada karbon aktifnya dengan kapasitas maksimal 150 mg/g sesuai dengan model Langmuir. Formaldehida mengalami oksidasi katalitik pada permukaan nanopartikel Perak sesuai dengan Model Langmuir Hinshelwood bimolekuler. Kurva breakthrough adsorpsi dapat dimodelkan secara tepat menggunakan Model Thomas. Hasil adsorpsi formaldehida dalam udara digunakan untuk melakukan simulasi adsorpsi dengan campuran gas lain dan memperkirakan kebutuhan jumlah karbon aktif dalam ruangan. ......Formaldehyde is one of gas pollutant that cause health problems such as nasopharyngeal cancer. Synthesis of activated carbon powder from bamboo Petung with silver or copper nanoparticles additive used as pollutant adsorbents. Formaldehyde adsorption capacity in batch and continuous systems were used to obtain formaldehyde adsorption models. The analysis show that the activated carbon modified with silver nanoparticle has a surface area of 683 m2/g, an average pore diameter of 2.7 nm (mesoporous and microporous), the size of the nanoparticles is 2-6 nm and posess hydroxyl groups on its carbon surfaces. The activated carbon modified with silver nanoparticle shows better properties and capabilities than the activated carbon modifed with nanoparticles Copper. Formaldehyde adsorption capacity of the activated carbon modified with silver nanoparticle reached 2.7 times as that of the activated carbon without, with a maximum capacity of 150 mg/g estimated from the Langmuir model. Catalytic oxidation of formaldehyde into CO2 occurs on the surface of Ag nanoparticles according to the bimolecular Langmuir Hinshelwood model. The breakthrough adsorption curves have been well represented using Thomas model. The results of formaldehide adsorption can be used to perform an adsorption simulation containing other component gas mixture and used to estimate the activated carbon needed for indoor application.

Abstrak :
Superabsorbent polymers SAP adalah material yang dapat menyerap cairan dalam jumlah yang sangat besar. Pada penelitian ini dilakukan sintesis material SAP dengan bahan baku natrium karboksimetil selulosa NaCMC yang berasal dari selulosa eceng gondok. Salah satu karakteristik NaCMC yang sangat berpengaruh adalah derajat substitusi DS . Semakin tinggi nilai DS dari NaCMC, semakin baik kemampuan SAP yang dihasilkan dalam menyerap cairan yang dinyatakan dengan swelling ratio SR . Jenis media yang digunakan dalam sintesis NaCMC sangat berpengaruh terhadap nilai DS. Semakin rendah polaritas media, semakin tinggi nilai DS yang dihasilkan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menghasilkan NaCMC berbahan dasar eceng gondok dengan nilai DS yang tinggi dan menghasilkan material SAP dengan kemampuan mengabsorbsi air yang tinggi.Penelitian ini terdiri dari tiga tahap, yaitu isolasi selulosa, sintesis NaCMC, dan sintesis SAP. Isolasi selulosa dilakukan dengan menggunakan larutan NaClO2 dan NaOH untuk menghilangkan lignin dan hemiselulosa. Kemudian sintesis NaCMC dilakukan dengan menggunakan campuran dua larutan sebagai media reaksi agar diperoleh polaritas yang lebih rendah. Ada lima kombinasi campuran media reaksi yang digunakan, yaitu campuran isopropil alkohol-etanol IPE , 2-butanol-etanol BE , isobutil alkohol-etanol IBE , isopropil alkohol-2-butanol IPB , dan isopropil alkohol-isobutil alkohol IPIB dengan komposisi 20:80, 50:50, dan 80:20. Untuk masing-masing komposisi media, dilakukan variasi larutan NaOH 5-35 . NaCMC yang diperoleh dengan menggunakan media reaksi IPB, digunakan sebagai bahan baku pada sintesis SAP dengan menggunakan asam sitrat sebagai agen pengikat silang. Analisis dilakukan terhadap kadar selulosa di dalam eceng gondok dan selulosa hasil isolasi, nilai DS NaCMC, analisis menggunakan SEM, FTIR dan XRD terhadap selulosa dan NaCMC, serta pengukuran kadar Na di dalam alkali selulosa menggunakan AAS, sedangkan produk SAP dikarakterisasi menggunakan FTIR, SEM dan analisa SR.Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa kadar selulosa dari produk selulosa sebesar 95,04 dan produk NaCMC eceng gondok memiliki nilai DS di atas 0,72. Nilai DS tertinggi dari NaCMC eceng gondok adalah 2,34 yang dicapai dengan menggunakan media campuran isopropil alkohol dan isobutil alkohol dengan komposisi 20:80 pada konsentrasi NaOH 35 . Produk material SAP yang dihasilkan dapat mencapai nilai SR sebesar 12,99.

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Superabsorbent polymers SAP is a material which is able to absorb a considerable amount of liquid. In the present study, synthesis of SAP material using Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose NaCMC from water hyacinth cellulose as raw material was conducted. One of the most important characteristic of NaCMC is degree of Subtitution DS . Higher DS of NaCMC will improve the ability of produced SAP to absorb liquid, as measured by swelling ratio SR . Type of medium used in NaCMC synthesis also plays a significant role in DS value. Medium with low polarity will result in higher DS value. The aim of this study is to produce NaCMC from water hyacinth with high DS value, thus SAP material with high absorption ability can be obtained.This research consists of three main steps cellulose isolation, synthesis of NaCMC and synthesis of SAP. Isolation of cellulose was performed using NaClO2 and NaOH to remove lignin and hemicellulose content. Synthesis of NaCMC was then carried out using a mixture of two solutions as reaction medium in order to obtain low polarity medium. Five different combinations of reaction medium mixtures were used, i.e. isopropyl alcohol ethanol IPE , 2 butanol ethanol BE , isobuthyl alcohol ethanol IBE , isopropyl alcohol 2 butanol IPB , and isopropyl alcohol isobutyl alcohol IPIB with different ratios 20 80, 50 50 and 80 20 , followed by variation of NaOH 5 35 solution for each ratio. NaCMC obtained using reaction medium IPB was further utilized as raw material in synthesis SAP with citric acid as crosslinker agent. Cellulose content in water hyacinth and cellulose from isolation step and DS of NaCMC were measured. Cellulose and NaCMC were analyzed by SEM, FTIR and XRD. Measurement of Na content in alkali cellulose were performed using AAS, and SAP product was characterized by FTIR, SEM and SR analysis.The results obtained show that cellulose content of cellulose product is 95.04 and degree of subtitusion of NaCMC product from water hyacinth is above 0.72. Highest DS value of NaCMC from water hyacinth is 2.34, which was achieved using a mixture medium of isopropyl alcohol and isobutyl alcohol 20 80 at NaOH 35 . SR value of produced SAP material was 12.99.