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Abstrak :
[ABSTRAK
Di banyak negara berkembang termasuk Indonesia, pemerintah daerah masih berusaha keras untuk menyediakan jasa pengangkutan sampah yang memadai. Sampah yang tidak terangkut dibuang ke tempat pembuangan yang terbuka yang dapat meningkatkan resiko kesehatan. Di lain pihak, terdapat beberapa fenomena yang menunjukkan bahwa masyarakat secara bersama-sama dapat menyelesaikan permasalahan kolektif. Untuk memahami bagaimana solusi dari masyarakat dapat muncul, konsep modal sosial menjadi penting untuk dibahas. Modal sosial adalah jaringan sosial yang kuat yang didalamnya terdapat nilai dan norma yang dapat mendorong kerjasama antar individu. Interaksi sosial yang terjadi dilandasi oleh rasa percaya antar anggota masyarakat, yaitu bagaimana seorang individu percaya akan konstribusi dari anggota masyarakat yang lain untuk bersama-sama mengatasi permasalahan kolektif di komunitasnya. Masih kurangnya studi empirik mengenai modal sosial di Indonesia dan perlunya memberikan bukti apakah modal sosial mempengaruhi aksi kolektif menjadi tujuan utama disertasi ini. Karena pengukuran variabel modal sosial dan aksi kolektif merupakan salah satu masalah yang perlu diperhatikan, karenanya disertasi ini menggunakan dua metode yaitu model ekonometrik yang menggunakan data survey IFLS (Indonesia Family Life Survey) dan metode eksperimen (eksperimen di laboratorium komputer).

Seiring dengan dilakukannya eksperimen, dilakukan juga survey terhadap partisipan eksperimen untuk melihat konsistensi pengukuran modal sosial antara hasil eksperimen dengan survey. Aksi kolektif yang digunakan dalam studi ini adalah yang terkait dengan kegiatan proteksi lingkungan. Pada model ekonometrik, trust (kepercayaan) dan civic network (jaringan sipil) digunakan sebagai proksi untuk mengukur modal sosial. Modal sosial diukur dalam dua tingkat, yaitu dalam tingkat individu dan tingkat kolektif (masyarakat). Metode eksperimen menggunakan trust game untuk mengukur trust, sebagai proksi dari modal sosial, dan public goods game untuk mengukur kontribusi individu untuk suatu aksi kolektif. Dari kedua metode empiris dapat diambil kesimpulan secara meyakinkan bahwa modal sosial secara signifikan berpengaruh pada kontribusi individu untuk suatu aksi kolektif. Dari metode yang pertama ditunjukkan bahwa pada tingkat individu, civic network mempunyai dampak yang lebih besar, sedangkan pada tingkat xii komunitas, trust memiliki dampak yang lebih besar terhadap peluang seseorang berpartisipasi dalam suatu aksi kolektif ?kerja bakti?. Faktor lain yang berpengaruh juga adalah pendapatan, jenis kelamin, tipe daerah (perkotaan/pedesaan), dan keragaman agama dan etnis dalam suatu wilayah. Hasil dari eksperimen menunjukkan bahwa trust berpengaruh positif terhadap kontribusi individu dalam suatu aksi kolektif. Hal ini berlaku baik untuk trustor (orang yang memberikan kepercayaan kepada orang lain) dan trustee (orang yang mengembalikan kepercayaan yang telah diberikan). Trust diukur dari berapa uang yang seorang individu berikan kepada pasangannya. Walaupun begitu, kita tidak menemukan bukti yang signifikan untuk menunjukkan bahwa pengungkapan dari perilaku sebagian anggota kelompok pada trust game berpengaruh pada kontribusi individu di public goods game. Terdapat beberapa implikasi dari hasil studi ini. Pertama adalah pentingnya memandang modal sosial sebagai faktor yang penting dalam penyediaan barang kolektif. Kedua, pentingnya mempertahankan tingkat modal sosial. Lebih jauh lagi, perlu difikirkan bagaimana mengakumulasi modal sosial dengan melakukan investasi. Ketiga, dalam setiap kebijakan pemerintah, tingkat modal sosial dalam masyarakat perlu dijadikan pertimbangan; artinya jangan sampai ada kebijakan yang akhirnya menurunkan modal sosial. Intervensi pemerintah yang terlalu besar ke dalam masyarakat dapat melemahkan kemampuan masyarakat untuk mengatasi permasalahan kolektif dan membuat masyarakat semakin tergantung kepada pemerintah.;

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ABSTRACT
struggle to provide with reliable solid waste collection services. Uncollected waste, dumped into open spaces, increases environmental health and risk. There exists evidence showing the ability of communities to collectively act at neighborhood levels in order to resolve a collective problem. In order to understand what takes place for a self-governed solution to emerge from within a community, the concept of social capital needs to be addressed. Social capital refers to a dense social network with embedded values and norms that promotes cooperation between individuals. This is the kind of social interaction that is represented by trust among members of a community. Trust here refers to an individual?s belief in the ability of others to contribute or cooperate to solve collective problems within a community. The lack of empirical study on social capital in Indonesia and providing strong empirical evidence on whether social capital induces collective action become the main objective of this dissertation. As the measurement issue of social capital and collective action becomes important factors to be considered, empirical evidence provided in this study will address the measurement problem. Two methods will be conducted: econometric model using large-scale survey based-data (IFLS/Indonesian Family Life Survey) and experimental method (computer laboratory experiment).

As we conduct the experiment, we also conduct microscale survey within subjects to look at the consistency of the measurement of social capital between using experiment and survey. We use environmental protection activity as the case of collective action problem raised in this study. In the econometric model, trust and civic network are used to proxy social capital, and we introduce arisan as the control variable for social capital. We employ social capital in the individual and community context. The experimental method uses the trust game to measure trust, used here to proxy social capital, and a public goods game to measure contributions in a collective action. Results from the two methods seem to convincingly conclude that social capital significantly impacts individual contributions in a collective action. From the first method it is shown that at the individual level, civic network has the largest impact. At the community level, trust has the largest impact on the probability of individuals participating in kerja bakti. Other factors that need to put into account x are income, gender, region (urban/rural), and diversity in terms of religion and ethnicity. Results from the experiment method show that trust is positively significant in inducing individual contributions in a collective action, and this holds both for the trustor (the one who hands over the trust to the trustee) and the trustee (the one who reciprocates in kind). Trust is measured here by how much money is given by an individual to his or her partner. However, we found no significant evidence to support the impact of partial disclosure of a group member?s behavior in the trust game on contributions in the public goods game. There are implications to consider from the results of this study. First is the importance of considering social capital as a means to provide collective goods. Second, the importance to maintain the levels of social capital. We also have to think on how does one accumulate more out of investing in social capital. Third, with any (local) government policy, the existing social capital has to be taken into account; a policy should not be implemented if it reduces social capital. Too much government intervention into a community could weaken the community?s capacity to resolve a collective problem and make them more dependent on the government.;struggle to provide with reliable solid waste collection services. Uncollected waste, dumped into open spaces, increases environmental health and risk. There exists evidence showing the ability of communities to collectively act at neighborhood levels in order to resolve a collective problem. In order to understand what takes place for a self-governed solution to emerge from within a community, the concept of social capital needs to be addressed. Social capital refers to a dense social network with embedded values and norms that promotes cooperation between individuals. This is the kind of social interaction that is represented by trust among members of a community. Trust here refers to an individual?s belief in the ability of others to contribute or cooperate to solve collective problems within a community. The lack of empirical study on social capital in Indonesia and providing strong empirical evidence on whether social capital induces collective action become the main objective of this dissertation. As the measurement issue of social capital and collective action becomes important factors to be considered, empirical evidence provided in this study will address the measurement problem. Two methods will be conducted: econometric model using large-scale survey based-data (IFLS/Indonesian Family Life Survey) and experimental method (computer laboratory experiment). As we conduct the experiment, we also conduct microscale survey within subjects to look at the consistency of the measurement of social capital between using experiment and survey. We use environmental protection activity as the case of collective action problem raised in this study. In the econometric model, trust and civic network are used to proxy social capital, and we introduce arisan as the control variable for social capital. We employ social capital in the individual and community context. The experimental method uses the trust game to measure trust, used here to proxy social capital, and a public goods game to measure contributions in a collective action. Results from the two methods seem to convincingly conclude that social capital significantly impacts individual contributions in a collective action. From the first method it is shown that at the individual level, civic network has the largest impact. At the community level, trust has the largest impact on the probability of individuals participating in kerja bakti. Other factors that need to put into account x are income, gender, region (urban/rural), and diversity in terms of religion and ethnicity. Results from the experiment method show that trust is positively significant in inducing individual contributions in a collective action, and this holds both for the trustor (the one who hands over the trust to the trustee) and the trustee (the one who reciprocates in kind). Trust is measured here by how much money is given by an individual to his or her partner. However, we found no significant evidence to support the impact of partial disclosure of a group member?s behavior in the trust game on contributions in the public goods game. There are implications to consider from the results of this study. First is the importance of considering social capital as a means to provide collective goods. Second, the importance to maintain the levels of social capital. We also have to think on how does one accumulate more out of investing in social capital. Third, with any (local) government policy, the existing social capital has to be taken into account; a policy should not be implemented if it reduces social capital. Too much government intervention into a community could weaken the community?s capacity to resolve a collective problem and make them more dependent on the government., struggle to provide with reliable solid waste collection services. Uncollected waste, dumped into open spaces, increases environmental health and risk. There exists evidence showing the ability of communities to collectively act at neighborhood levels in order to resolve a collective problem. In order to understand what takes place for a self-governed solution to emerge from within a community, the concept of social capital needs to be addressed. Social capital refers to a dense social network with embedded values and norms that promotes cooperation between individuals. This is the kind of social interaction that is represented by trust among members of a community. Trust here refers to an individual’s belief in the ability of others to contribute or cooperate to solve collective problems within a community. The lack of empirical study on social capital in Indonesia and providing strong empirical evidence on whether social capital induces collective action become the main objective of this dissertation. As the measurement issue of social capital and collective action becomes important factors to be considered, empirical evidence provided in this study will address the measurement problem. Two methods will be conducted: econometric model using large-scale survey based-data (IFLS/Indonesian Family Life Survey) and experimental method (computer laboratory experiment). As we conduct the experiment, we also conduct microscale survey within subjects to look at the consistency of the measurement of social capital between using experiment and survey. We use environmental protection activity as the case of collective action problem raised in this study. In the econometric model, trust and civic network are used to proxy social capital, and we introduce arisan as the control variable for social capital. We employ social capital in the individual and community context. The experimental method uses the trust game to measure trust, used here to proxy social capital, and a public goods game to measure contributions in a collective action. Results from the two methods seem to convincingly conclude that social capital significantly impacts individual contributions in a collective action. From the first method it is shown that at the individual level, civic network has the largest impact. At the community level, trust has the largest impact on the probability of individuals participating in kerja bakti. Other factors that need to put into account x are income, gender, region (urban/rural), and diversity in terms of religion and ethnicity. Results from the experiment method show that trust is positively significant in inducing individual contributions in a collective action, and this holds both for the trustor (the one who hands over the trust to the trustee) and the trustee (the one who reciprocates in kind). Trust is measured here by how much money is given by an individual to his or her partner. However, we found no significant evidence to support the impact of partial disclosure of a group member’s behavior in the trust game on contributions in the public goods game. There are implications to consider from the results of this study. First is the importance of considering social capital as a means to provide collective goods. Second, the importance to maintain the levels of social capital. We also have to think on how does one accumulate more out of investing in social capital. Third, with any (local) government policy, the existing social capital has to be taken into account; a policy should not be implemented if it reduces social capital. Too much government intervention into a community could weaken the community’s capacity to resolve a collective problem and make them more dependent on the government.]

Abstrak :
Sejak diperkenalkan penggunaan media pembayaran elektronis terus berkembang, namun proprosi uang tunai masih dominan digunakan dalam pembayaran transaksi rumah tangga di Indonesia. Besarnya penggunaan uang tunai, disamping kurang efisien juga berdampak terhadap aktivitas transaksi ekonomi yang tidak tercatat shadow economy. Peningkatan efisiensi transaksi pembayaran telah menarik peneliti dan pembuat kebijakan mengkaji dan mendorong konsumen rumah tangga lebih banyak menggunakan media pembayaran elektronis dibandingkan dengan media pembayaran uang tunai less cash society. Studi ini menganalisis keputusan rumah tangga dalam memilih media pembayaran untuk bertransaksi, dengan perhatian utama pada dua hal. Pertama, mengkaji pengaruh persepsi rumah tangga terhadap atribut kemudahan identifikasi transaksi anonymity terkait besarnya penggunaan media pembayaran uang tunai. Kedua, mengkaji dan mengidentifikasi pengaruh atribut yang melekat pada media pembayaran seperti keamanan, kemudahan, biaya, reward, dan acceptance terhadap keputusan rumah tangga dalam menggunakan media pembayaran elektronis serta bagaimana proses pengambilan keputusan pilihan rumah tangga tersebut dilakukan. Studi ini menggunakan data hasil survei terhadap rumah tangga perkotaan di dua provinsi yang dianggap mewakili wilayah dengan penggunaan media elektronis tertinggi di Indonesia. Hasil pengumpulan data diolah dan dianalisa untuk melihat faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap pilihan media pembayaran dengan menggunakan model pilihan diskrit. Metode ordered logit, digunakan untuk mengetahui perubahan kategori bertingkat kelompok pengguna uang tunai. Sedangkan metode nested logit, dipilih untuk mengkaji dampak atribut terhadap pilihan penggunaan media pembayaran elektronis dan proses pengambilan keputusan rumah tangga. Hasil studi pertama menunjukkan bahwa persepsi terhadap kemudahan teridentifikasinya transaksi media pembayaran akan berpengaruh terhadap besarnya penggunaan uang tunai. Namun, pada kelompok rumah tangga dengan kelas pendapatan tertentu menengah, kemudahan identifikasi transaksi diperlukan untuk memonitor pengeluaran budget control. Selain itu, pembayaran upah dengan uang tunai dan tipe transaksi bulanan akan meningkatkan penggunaan uang tunai lebih besar. Dari faktor sosial ekonomi, penggunaan uang tunai dalam jumlah besar dipengaruhi oleh pendidikan kepala rumah tangga yang rendah, tingkat pendapatan, jumlah anggota rumah tangga yang banyak, dan kepala rumah tangga yang tidak bekerja. Sedangkan hasil studi kedua memperlihatkan bahwa keamanan, biaya, reward, dan acceptance secara signifikan memengaruhi probabilitas penggunaan media pembayaran elektronis. Selain itu, hasil estimasi marginal effect menunjukkan perubahan persepsi atribut media pembayaran yang memiliki pengaruh besar adalah tingkat keamanan, pemberian reward, dan biaya. Dapat juga dicatat bahwa rumah tangga pengguna kartu debit dan transfer kredit sangat sensitif terhadap perubahan tingkat persepsi atribut keamanan, biaya, dan acceptance; sedangkan rumah tangga pengguna kartu kredit relatif sensitif terhadap perubahan persepsi atribut reward. Estimasi juga menghasilkan nilai koefisien inclusive value sebesar 0,661 yang menunjukkan proses keputusan rumah tangga dalam menggunakan media pembayaran bersifat bertahap dan membuktikan adanya korelasi di antara media pembayaran elektronis. Kebijakan untuk mendorong penggunaan media pembayaran elektronis dapat dilakukan melalui peningkatan pengetahuan rumah tangga tentang kualitas atribut media pembayaran melalui pendidikan dan pemberian informasi. Selain itu, peningkatan kualitas atribut media pembayaran dengan memanfaatkan berbagai fitur teknologi dan efisiensi transaksi juga diperlukan. Dari sisi karakteristik sosial ekonomi rumah tangga, faktor usia, pendidikan, pendapatan, dan status kepala rumah tangga bekerja, memiliki probabilitas tinggi untuk menggunakan setiap media pembayaran elektronis lebih banyak. Hasil ini menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan media pembayarna elektronis lebih segmented pada kelompok berpendidikan dan berpendapatan tinggi serta usia produktif. Kebijakan yang dapat diambil harus tepat sasaran pada target kelompok tersebut.

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Although in recent years the use of electronic payment media has been growing rapidly in the world and have impacts on economic efficiency, the use of cash for economic transactions is still dominant. Existing studies focused on the macro impact of such transaction in developed countries. However, the studies on the payment method use are relatively limited. This is mainly due to the data limitation at the individual level. Various micro studies to identify the socio economic factors on the choice of cash usage have been attempted, but the focuses to identify the effects of media attribute payments are still limited. This study attempts to analyze household's decision associated with preference of cash and electronic payments using data of 936 urban households in six municipalities in Jakarta and East Java, focusing on the effect of payment system characteristics on the preferred payment method. Discrete choice model is employed as the household's decision can be assumed to follow a sequential process.The use of cash still represents the dominant role in the payment transaction. Cash payment has unique attributes compared to other payment media as it relates to the unidentified transaction factor. This study examines the impacts of the perception of the media attributes of specific payment transactions, specifically the ease of the payment media identification and the effects of characteristics of domestic cash transactions on the amount of use of cash in Indonesia. The study shows that an ordered logit model has been able to explain the factors that influence the magnitude of the use of cash. The results estimation shows that perceptions of the ease of transaction identification on medium of payment will affect the magnitude of the use of cash. In households with middle income class, the ease of transaction identification is required to monitor the expenditure budget control . In addition, the payment of wages in cash and monthly transaction type will magnify the cash usage. Based on the findings in this study, the electronic payment media needs to be utilized on payroll systems and routine household transactions. The amount of cash usage is also influenced by the behavior of cash withdrawal and the amount of money held by households. This findings show that the holding the money is intended for transaction purposes.Thus, to reduce the use of cash, a policy that can be implemented is to build the awareness to reduce the level of households 39 perceptions of the ease of identification of the payment media. In addition, the provision of information related to transaction monitoring can be more precisely implemented. Efforts from the authority to monitor transactions can be done discretely, where the data recording of transactions is carried out as part of the process of filling the transaction order. This procedure is expected to make households feel more comfortable doing transactions. To accommodate the needs of monitoring of transactions by households budget control ,a recording facility providing payment transactions could be one of the viable options for households.The use of payment via electronic payment methods, such as credit transfers, debit cards, credit cards, e money e banking, has several advantages compared to cash payment method. It is due to the reasons that electronic payment methods have time efficiency, lower cost of cash handling and cash management as well as lower security risk. The estimation results indicate that the use of the payment is determined by a variety of variables. Based on the estimation of the nested logit models, it can be shown that security, cost, reward and acceptance significantly affect the probability use of electronic payment methods. In addition, the marginal effect estimation result indicates that the payment method attributes have major influence on the level of security, reward and transaction costs. It should be noted that debit card and credit transfer users are the most sentitive to a change in unit of security, cost and acceptance, and credit card users are more likely affected by the changes in reward. In terms of socio economic characteristics of households, age, education, income, and employment status of household heads have increased the probability to use more electronic payment methods with various result. The ease of access to banking significantly affects the use of all electronic payment methods. These variations may imply that policymakers are required to apply different strategies in different attribute of payment methods and social economics characteristics. The estimation result also indicate that the use model of payment methods is made via sequential decision a nested model , as the inclusive value showed the coefficient of 0.661, which remained consistent with utility maximization framework. This implies that one payment method is more likely to compete with another payment method of the same electronics payments than the payment methods of cash payment alternative. In conclusion, this study confirms attributes that are influential to further induce household's use of electronic payment methods.

Abstrak :
Studi ini bertujuan melihat peran amenitis (fasilitas) terhadap perbedaan upah dan sewa antar kabupaten/kota di Indonesia. Indeks fasilitas adalah karakteristik spesifik daerah yang mencakup fasilitas umum. Penelitian ini menggunakan data Badan Pusat Statistik dari 231 kabupaten perkotaan di Indonesia, yaitu dari Podes, Sakernas dan Susenas tahun 2008, 2011, 2014. Teknik analisis ekonometrik simultan-panel-spasial digunakan dalam studi. Studi ini menemukan bahwa indeks fasilitas seperti pendidikan umum, aksesibilitas, fasilitas komersial dan bisnis dapat menjelaskan perbedaan upah regional. Aksesibilitas, fasilitas komersial, area bisnis dan fasilitas hiburan menjelaskan perbedaan sewa regional. Indeks fasilitas di suatu daerah berperan menjelaskan upah atau sewa antar daerah. ......This study examines the role of amenities on differences in wages and rents between districts in Indonesia, controlling spatial effects. Amenities are specific facilities that include public facilities in an index. Secondary data from 231 urban districts are combined from Podes, Sakernas, and Susenas in 2008, 2011, and 2014 from BPS. A SAR model is used in this study. This study finds that general education, accessibility, and commercial and business facilities indices can explain regional wage differences. Accessibility, and commercial, business, and entertainment facilities explain regional rental differences. Amenities play a role in explaining wages or rents between regions.

Abstrak :
Penelitian ini bertujuan menyelidiki keputusan menikah dikalangan perempuan terhadap pengaruh ekpektasi dari output perkawinan dalam proses pengambilan keputusan dan mengkaji premi upah pernikahan bagi laki-laki dan perempuan serta mencoba mengeksplorasi bias seleksi pada karakteristik yang dapat diamati. Data yang digunakan adalah data cross-sectional dari Survei Kehidupan Keluarga Indonesia 4 (IFLS4). Pertama, penelitian ini membuat sebuah model empiris dimana variabel probabilitas bekerja dan probabilitas memiliki anak sebagai variabel proksi terhadap ekspektasi dari output pernikahanan yang akan mempengaruhi probabilitas keputusan pernikahan perempuan. Kedua, untuk mengkaji premi upah, penelitian ini mempertimbangkan pernikahan sebagai perlakuan non-acak dengan potensi hasil upah yang heterogen untuk mengkaji premi upah di Indonesia. Kemudian, dengan menggunakan propensity score matching, bias seleksi antara pria dan wanita yang menikah dan lajang dapat ditentukan. Kesimpulannya pertama, keputusan menikah perempuan ditentukan oleh ekspektasi dari output perkawinan, yaitu peluang untuk bekerja dan peluang untuk mempunyai anak, serta oleh karakteristik individu itu sendiri, seperti usia, agama, dan suku. Kedua, terdapat faktor lain yang mempengaruhi keputusan pernikahan perempuan, namun dalam skala yang lebih kecil. Kecil kemungkinan untuk menikah bagi perempuan yang tinggal di kota dan ditemukan premi upah pernikahan baik bagi laki-laki maupun perempuan meskipun perempuan mempunyai premi upah pernikahan yang lebih kecil dibandingkan dengan laki-laki. ......This study tries to investigate the decision to marry among women on the effect of expected marital output in the decision-making process, examines the marriage wage premium for men and women, and tries to explore selection bias on observable characteristics using cross-sectional data from IFLS4. First, an empirical model is proposed where probability to work and probability to have children are used as proxies of expected marital output which will influence the probability of women’s marriage decision. Second, the study considering marriage as a non-random treatment with heterogenous potential outcomes of wage to examines wage premium in Indonesia. Then, using propensity score matching, selection bias between married and single men and women has been determined. The conclusions are first, women’s marriage decision determined by the expected marital output, which are probability to work and probability to have a child or children, and by the individual characteristics itself, such as age, religion and ethnicity. Second, other factors affect women’s marriage decisions, but to a lesser extent. Marriage is less likely for women who live in urban area and we find a marriage wage premium for both men and women though women have smaller marriage wage premium as compared to men.

Abstrak :
Dampak ekstrim tsunami Aceh 2004, tidak hanya meningkatkan jumlah bantuan yang masuk dari masyarakat lokal dan internasional tetapi juga sejumlah besar lembaga negara dan lembaga bantuan bencana yang terlibat dalam penanggulangan bencana. Studi ini menganalisis pengaruh berbagai jenis lembaga pelaksana bantuan dalam menentukan probabilitas pemulihan ekonomi. Menggunakan kumpulan data unik penginderaan jauh (luar angkasa) yang dikombinasikan dengan database Recovery Aceh Nias (RAN) dan PODES, untuk semua desa yang terkena dampak selama proses tanggap bencana. Rata-rata piksel cahaya malam sebelum dan sesudah bencana dari data luar angkasa digunakan dalam mengukur pencapaian pemulihan ekonomi. Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa rata-rata waktu pemulihan ekonomi yang dicapai di desa terdampak bencana adalah 17,51 bulan, hal ini cukup cepat dari perkiraan. Berdasarkan metode survival analysis (estimasi Kaplan Meier dan Cox Proportional Hazard), ditemukan bahwa peningkatan jumlah keberadaan donor-pelaksana, pelaksana internasional, dan pelaksana pemerintah (BRR) dapat menentukan kecepatan pemulihan. Selain itu, kondisi awal karakteristik geografis desa yang terkena dampak, dan modal sosial juga turut menentukan kemungkinan pemulihan. ......The extreme impact of the 2004 Aceh tsunami, not only boosted the amount of incoming aid from local and international communities but also a large number of country institutions and disaster aid agencies involved in disaster management. This study analyzes the influence of different types of aid implementing agencies in determining the economic recovery probability. Using the unique set of remote sensing data (outer space) in combination with Recovery Aceh Nias (RAN) database and PODES, for all affected villages during the post-disaster response process. The average of night-light pixels before and after the disaster of outer space data used to measure the economic recovery achievement. We find that the average time the economic recovery achieved in the disaster-affected village is 17.51 months, is quite fast from the forecast. Based on the method of survival analysis (Kaplan Meier and Cox Proportional Hazard estimation), we found that the increase on existence number of donor-implementers, international-implementers, and government-implementers (BRR) can determine the speed of recovery. In addition, the initial conditions of the affected village geographical characteristics, and social capital also contributes in determining the probabilities of recovery

Abstrak :
Perilaku konsumsi conspicuous banyak ditemui di negara-negara maju maupun berkembang. Di satu sisi, konsumsi conspicuous memberikan kontribusi positif seperti pertumbuhan dan percepatan perekonomian; namun di sisi lain dapat membawa dampak negatif seperti jebakan kemiskinan, kesenjangan, pengangguran dan kriminalitas. Di negara dunia ketiga termasuk Indonesia, konsumsi conspicuous dilakukan bahkan sebelum rumah tangga memiliki kemampuan memenuhi kebutuhan pangan, sandang dan papan mereka. Rumah tangga yang melakukan konsumsi conspicuous cenderung lebih mengutamakan pengeluarannya untuk barang-barang yang mudah terlihat publik dan mengurangi pengeluaran lain seperti pendidikan dan kesehatan, sehingga berpeluang kehilangan kesempatan untuk mengejar level pendapatan yang lebih tinggi. Selain itu rumah tangga mungkin mengurangi atau meniadakan tabungan yang sesungguhnya dibutuhkan untuk merealisasikan investasi di masa depan. Dampak negatif konsumsi conspicuous terutama semakin buruk ketika terjadi di kelas pendapatan bawah, hal mana membuat penelitian ini menjadi penting untuk dilakukan. Kebaruan studi konsumsi conspicuous ini karena merupakan penelitian empiris yang dilakukan menggunakan data sekunder. Penelitian terdahulu tentang topik ini kerap bersifat teoritis. Jikapun ada studi empiris, umumnya menggunakan data primer berupa survei atau wawancara semi terstruktur. Kebaruan lainnya adalah mensyaratkan adanya kondisi kedua, yaitu nilai elastistas pendapatan positif; setelah kondisi pertama terpenuhi yaitu nilai elastistas harga positif. Kondisi elastisitas pendapatan positif dipersyaratkan guna memilah antara barang dengan efek Veblen (disebut juga sebagai barang Veblen atau barang untuk konsumsi conspicuous atau barang conspicuous) dengan barang Giffen yang sama-sama memenuhi persyaratan kondisi pertama namun elastisitas pendapatan negatif. Lebih lanjut, dengan adanya syarat elastisitas pendapatan positif tersebut, dapat ditentukan barang conspicuous tersebut terkategorikan sebagai barang necessities ataukah mewah (luxury). Penelitian konsumsi conspicuous ini dilakukan dengan mencermati keberadaan efek Veblen pada konsumsi di Indonesia dengan menerapkan model empiris menggunakan price dependent utility function Fechner Thurstone dengan kendala anggaran. Penelitian ini menggunakan data sekunder Survei Sosial Ekonomi Nasional periode 2008, 2009 dan 2010 (Susenas Panel) pada level yang lebih mikro yaitu rumah tangga, membedakannya berdasar kelas pendapatan (income class), pengeluaran konsumsi, menggunakan variabel kontrol, dan penerapan kepada delapan kelompok barang, dengan harga masing-masing kelompok barang diproksi menggunakan indeks harga konsumen (IHK). Uji empiris dilakukan menggunakan metoda estimasi panel seemingly unrelated regression (SUR Panel) untuk mengolah data panel yang merupakan kombinasi data cross section dan time series (rumah tangga dengan pengeluaran konsumsi serta harga sepanjang periode 2008, 2009 dan 2010). Penelitian ini bertujuan menguji keberadaan efek Veblen dalam perilaku konsumsi di Indonesia; mengeksplorasi kelompok-kelompok barang yang memiliki efek Veblen; serta mengidentifikasi perbedaan kelompok-kelompok barang yang memiliki efek Veblen antar kelas pendapatan. Dengan adanya penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memperluas wawasan dan pemahaman masyarakat serta para pengambil kebijakan terkait konsumsi conspicuous di Indonesia. Kesimpulan penelitian ini menunjukkan adanya konsumsi conspicuous di Indonesia, terlihat dari ditemuinya efek Veblen di seluruh kelas pendapatan rumah tangga. Kelompok barang conspicuous dapat berbeda antar kelas pendapatan dimana kelompok barang sandang dan barang pribadi ditemui di setiap kelas pendapatan. Barang dengan efek Veblen di Indonesia umumnya berupa barang neccesities kecuali kelompok barang bahan makanan di kelas pendapatan atas, serta kelompok barang transpor, komunikasi, jasa keuangan di kelas pendapatan bawah; keduanya merupakan barang mewah. ......Conspicuous consumption is commonly found in both developed and developing countries. On the one hand, conspicuous consumption contributes positively to the growth and acceleration of the economy; but on the other hand it can bring negative impacts like poverty traps, inequalities, unemployment and crime. In third world countries including Indonesia, conspicuous consumption is conducted even before households have the ability to fulfil their food, clothing and housing needs. Households involved in conspicuous consumption tend to spend more on visible items and reduce other expenses such as education and health, thus losing the opportunity to acquire higher income. Moreover, households may reduce or eliminate savings which actually required to apprehend future investments. The negative impact of conspicuous consumption is especially worse when it occurs in lower income classes, which makes this research crucial to be conducted. The novelty of this study is its empirical type and the enactment of secondary data. Previous research on this topic is often theoretical. Even if there are empirical studies, they are using primary data like interview or semi-structured survey. Another novelty is the prerequisite of second condition, namely the positive value of income elasticity; after the first condition of positive price elasticity is met. This second condition is required to distinguish goods with positive Veblen effects (also referred as Veblen goods, or goods for conspicuous, or conspicuous consumption) with Giffen goods that characterized with negative income elasticity. Furthermore, by the condition of positive income elasticity, conspicuous goods can be categorized as of necessities or luxury goods. This study aims to examine the existence of Veblen effects in consumption behavior in Indonesia; exploring groups of goods that have Veblen effects; and identifying different groups of goods with Veblen effects among income classes. This research is expected to broaden the insight and understanding of people and policy makers related to conspicuous consumption in Indonesia. This research is done by observing the existence of Veblen effect on consumption in Indonesia by applying empirical model using Fechner Thurstone price dependent utility function with budget constraint. This study uses secondary data of the National Socioeconomic Survey of 2008, 2009 and 2010 (Susenas Panel) at the micro (households) level, characterised by income classes, consumption expenditures, control variables, eight groups of bundle goods, at the price proxied with the consumer price index (CPI). The empirical assessment was conducted using panel seemingly unrelated regression (SUR Panel) estimation method to process panel data which is a combination of cross section and time series data (households with consumption expenditures and prices during the period of 2008, 2009 and 2010). This study concluded about the existence of conspicuous consumption in Indonesia, that Veblen effects are found in all income classes. Conspicuous goods may differ between income classes nevertheless bundle goods of clothing and personal items are found in each income class. Goods with Veblen effects in Indonesia generally are neccesities goods; except for foodstuffs in the upper income class; and transports, communications, financial services in the lower income class; both are luxury goods.

Abstrak :
Indonesia telah berkomitmen untuk mencapai Tujuan Pembangunan Berkelanjutan ke-7 untuk memperbaiki akses energi modern yang dapat dijangkau, layak, dan berkelanjutan untuk semua pihak. Pemerintah telah melakukan banyak perbaikan akses listrik dan liquid petroleum gas (LPG). Tanpa kedua jenis energi modern tersebut, rumah tangga menggunakan kayu bakar atau biomas yang menghasilkan dampak negatif. Perbaikan pasokan listrik dan LPG yang cukup masif seharusnya menurunkan ketimpangan penggunaan energi modern, tetapi ketimpangan energi meningkat di beberapa kelompok populasi. Ketimpangan penggunaan energi dipengaruhi juga oleh faktor permintaan. Pembahasan ketimpangan energi modern adalah penting karena mencerminkan ketimpangan ekonomi dan pemenuhan kebutuhan yang esensial untuk standard kehidupan yang lebih baik. Studi ini terdiri dari dua bagian. Bagian pertama mengukur ketimpangan penggunaan listrik dan LPG dengan menggunakan data Susenas. Metode yang digunakan adalah pengukuran indeks Theil dan Gini. Indeks Theil dihitung secara statik dan dinamik. Pengukuran ketimpangan mempertimbangkan dimensi spasial dan tingkat pendapatan. Indeks menunjukkan turunnya ketimpangan penggunaan energi modern secara nasional dan pada beberapa dimensi kelompok populasi, tetapi ketimpangan meningkat di perkotaan, di kelompok pendapatan tinggi, serta di beberapa provinsi. Bagian kedua menjawab pertanyaan apakah faktor-faktor permintaan berpengaruh pada distribusi penggunaan energi, yang dapat menjelaskan ketimpangannya. Serta, apakah pengaruhnya berbeda antara di perkotaan dan pedesaan. Pengukuran ini dipisah untuk masing-masing energi. Estimasi distribusi penggunaan listrik menggunakan Quantile Regression dan OLS. Estimasi distribusi penggunaan LPG menggunakan Quantile Count Regression dan Negative Binomial Regression. Estimasi pada model listrik menunjukkan bahwa faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi distribusi penggunaan listrik adalah pendapatan, harga listrik, gender, tingkat pendidikan, dan status bekerja, jumlah anggota usia lanjut, status rumah, peralatan listrik, dan daya terpasang. Faktor yang pengaruhnya berbeda antara di perkotaan dan di pedesaan adalah pendapatan, tingkat pendidikan, status bekerja, dan status rumah. Sementara itu, estimasi pada model LPG menunjukkan bahwa faktor yang mempengaruhi distribusi penggunaan LPG adalah pendapatan, harga LPG, gender, tingkat pendidikan, pekerjaan dan status rumah. Semua faktor tersebut berkorelasi secara berbeda antara perkotaan dan pedesaan. Studi ini berimplikasi pada kebijakan untuk mengatasi kekurangan energi di satu sisi, tetapi mendorong penghematan energi di sisi lain. Dalam hal kekurangan energi, pemerintah perlu mempertimbangkan untuk mengenali kelompok yang rentan menjadi miskin-energi. Di antaranya adalah rumah tangga berpenghasilan rendah, berpendidikan rendah, kepala rumah tangga wanita, dan pekerja mandiri di pedesaan. Program listrik semacam tenaga surya hemat energi perlu dilanjutkan di samping mendorong penggunaan energi lokal. Dalam hal energi memasak, program penggunaan tungku bersih murah perlu dipertimbangkan untuk dijalankan kembali. Di samping itu, peningkatan rasio elektrifikasi serta distribusi LPG perlu terus didorong terutama di daerah terpencil, pedesaan, dan wilayah timur Indonesia. Dalam hal penghematan energi, pendidikan tentang pentingnya hemat energi dan dampak eksternalitas perlu menyasar pada rumah tangga pengguna listrik yang tinggi, yaitu rumah tangga dengan tingkat pendidikan menengah dan universitas, terutama di perkotaan pada provinsi-provinsi di Sumatra, Jakarta, dan Kalimantan. ......Indonesia has committed to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 7 to improve access to modern energy that is affordable, feasible, and sustainable for all. The government has made many improvements in accessing electricity and liquid petroleum gas (LPG). Without these types of modern energy, households use firewood or biomass, resulting in negative impacts. Massive improvements in electricity supply and LPG should reduce inequality in modern energy use, but energy inequality increases in some population groups. Demand factors also influence inequality in energy use. Addressing modern energy inequality is important because it reflects economic inequality and the fulfillment of essential needs for a better standard of living. This study consists of two parts. The first part measures the inequality of electricity and LPG use using Susenas data. The methods are the decomposable Theil and Gini indexes. Theil index is calculated statically and dynamically. The inequality measurement considers the spatial dimensions and income levels. The index shows a decrease in inequality in modern energy usage nationally and some population groups, but inequality increases in urban areas, high-income groups, and some provinces. The second part addresses whether demand factors affect the distribution of modern energy usage, explaining inequality. And whether the effect is different between urban and rural areas. The estimate is separated for each energy. The electricity usage model is estimated using Quantile Regression and OLS. The LPG model is estimated using Quantile Count Regression and Negative Binomial Regression. Estimating the electricity model, factors influencing the electricity usage distribution are income, electricity price, gender, education level, occupation, number of elderlies, homeownership, electric appliances, and installed power. The factors that affect urban and rural areas are income, education level, work status, and home status. Meanwhile, the LPG model's estimation shows that the factors influencing the LPG usage distribution are income, LPG price, gender, education level, occupation, and home status. All of these factors correlate differently between urban and rural areas. This study has implications for policies to address energy insufficiency on the one hand but encourages energy savings on the other. In terms of energy insufficiency, the government needs to consider identifying groups vulnerable to being energy-poor. Among them are low-income, low-educated households, female household heads, and rural self-employed workers. Electricity programs such as energy-efficient solar power need to be continued and encourage the use of local energy. The program for using cheap, clean stoves needs to be considered for re-implementation in cooking energy. In addition, the increase in the electrification ratio and LPG distribution needs to be encouraged, especially in remote, rural, and eastern Indonesia. In terms of energy saving, education on the importance of energy-saving and the impact of externalities needs to target high electricity user households, namely households with secondary and university education levels, especially in urban areas in the provinces of Sumatra, Jakarta, and Kalimantan.