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"Sejak pertengahan 1990-an, semakin banyak negara berkembang yang menempuh Integrasi Ekonomi Regional (REI) dengan negara maju melalui Perjanjian Perdagangan Regional (RTA). Negara anggota perjanjian tersebut memberikan perlakuan yang lebih menguntungkan terhadap satu sama lain daripada terhadap mitra dagang lainnya yang bukan negara anggota. Perlakuan diskriminatif ini jelas tidak konsisten dengan kewajiban perlakuan Most Favoured Nation (MFN) WTO. Meskipun kewajiban perlakuan MFN merupakan prinsip dasar, namun WTO memperkenankan anggotanya untuk mengesampingkan prinsip tersebut dan menempuh REI berdasarkan Pasal XXIV GATT 1994 untuk RTA, Pasal V GATS untuk Perjanjian Integrasi Ekonomi (EIA) dan Klausul Enabling. Penelitian ini menganalisa mengapa WTO memberikan pengecualian tersebut. Selain itu, penelitian ini mengeksplorasi kecenderungan di kalangan negara berkembang menempuh REI dengan negara maju serta meneliti bagaimana negara berkembang dapat mengambil keuntungan tanpa mengucilkan sistem perdagangan multilateral WTO. Berdasarkan analisis hukum, REI sangat bermanfaat bagi negara berkembang WTO. Penelitian ini mendesak KTT APEC ke-21 dan Konferensi Tingkat Menteri ke-9 WTO di Bali untuk digunakan sebagai kesempatan untuk menunjukkan peran aktif dari masing-masing negara berkembang terutama tuan rumah, Indonesia, dalam mempromosikan liberalisasi perdagangan dan investasi secara regional dan global. Penelitian ini menyimpulkan bahwa REI diperlukan untuk mengambil langkah lebih lanjut dalam mewujudkan tujuan WTO untuk menciptakan perdagangan yang bebas dan adil. Selain itu, negara berkembang disarankan untuk menggunakan REI sebagai pilihan kebijakan terbaik kedua dan terus menempatkan prioritas tertinggi pada WTO dengan berkomitmen terhadap modus operandi WTO.

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Since mid-1990s, developing countries are increasingly pursuing Regional Economic Integration (REI) with developed countries through Regional Trade Agreements (RTA). In this case, the parties to such agreements offer each other more favourable treatment than they offer to other trading partners that are nonparties. Clearly, such discriminatory treatment is inconsistent with the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) treatment obligation of the WTO. Although MFN treatment obligation is a fundamental principle, the WTO does allow WTO members to set aside the principle and pursue REI under Article XXIV of the GATT 1994 for RTA, Article V of the GATS for Economic Integration Agreement (EIA) and the Enabling Clause. With that being said, this research analyses why does the WTO provides such exception. In addition, it explores the tendency among developing countries to pursue REI with developed countries and and examines how can those developing countries benefit from their pursuit without undermining the multilateral trading system of the WTO.

Based on a legal analysis, this research argues that REI will be highly beneficial for developing countries of the WTO. Furthermore, the research urges the 21st APEC Summit and the 9th Ministerial Conference of the WTO in Bali to be used as an opportunity to demonstrate an active role of each developing economy especially the host, Indonesia, in promoting regional and global trade and investment liberalisation. This research concludes that REI is necessary to take further steps towards realising the goal of the WTO to have a fair and freer trade. Moreover, developing countries are recommended to consider REI as the second best policy option and continue to place the highest priority on the WTO by committing to modus operandi of the WTO."

"Berbagai mekanisme perlindungan global safeguards dalam WTO Agreement dan Free Trade Agreement (FTA) seperti pada Bilateral Trade Agreements (BTA) dan Regional Trade Agreements (RTA) didasarkan pada alasan-alasan yang berbeda, fungsi yang berbeda, juga memiliki mekanisme safeguards yang berbeda. Fungsi utama global safeguards sebagai instrumen sementara untuk melindungi industri dalam negeri dari kerugian serius dan atau ancaman kerugian serius disebabkan adanya lonjakan impor, sebagai akibat disepakatinya tingkat tarif liberalisasi perdagangan diantara Negara-negara Anggota WTO. Sehingga Negara-negara anggota WTO dapat menikmati fleksibilitas kebijakan tingkat tarif tertentu atas liberalisasi perdagangan. Pembebasan penerapan global safeguards antar pihak FTA tidak konsisten dengan WTO Agreement khususnya tidak sejalan dengan prinsip non-diskriminasi (Most-Favoured-Nation). Namun, pada prakteknya dibenarkan asalkan kondisi paralelisme terpenuhi. Pihak FTA juga dapat mengambil perlindungan bilateral safeguards dan regional safeguards terhadap pihak lain asalkan tingkat pembatasan tarif tidak membahayakan persyaratan yang terkait dengan menghilangkan hambatan sehubungan dengan substansial semua perdagangan. Mekanisme Bilateral safeguards dan regional safeguards di bawah FTA dirancang menyesuaikan laju liberalisasi lebih lanjut setelah pihak FTA melaksanakan rencana penghapusan tarif sebagaimana kesepakatan dalam BTA dan RTA. Karena fungsi mendasar ini, persyaratan substansial semua perdagangan berdasarkan ketentuan FTA dalam Pasal XXIV GATT 1994 merupakan satu-satunya ketentuan yang relevan terkait ketentuan bilateral safeguards dan regional safeguards. Diterapkan di FTA selama periode penghapusan tarif dan dalam batas tingkat tarif MFN, yang konsisten dengan aturan WTO. Pemberlakuan ketentuan global safeguards, bilateral safeguards, dan regional safeguards memiliki mekanisme persyaratan substantif dan prosedural dalam penerapannya. Mengingat kemungkinan banyak bentuk penerapan safeguards yang tumpang tindih, negosiator FTA dapat mengambil solusi legislatif yang efektif yang memasukkan ketentuan FTA yang secara eksplisit melarang bentuk-bentuk tertentu jika terjadi penerapan tumpang tindih yang tidak diinginkan. Tesis ini mengungkapkan bagaimana penerapan global safeguards dibandingkan dengan bilateral safeguards dan regional safeguards tersebut, juga akan memberikan preskripsi tentang hal-hal yang harus dilakukan dalam menerapkan ketentuan bilateral safeguards dan regional safeguards antar negara-negara anggota BTA dan RTA yang juga merupakan Negara-negara anggota WTO yang menerapkan ketentuan global safeguards.

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Various mechanisms of global safeguards in the WTO Agreements and the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) such as the Bilateral Trade Agreements (BTA) and Regional Trade Agreements (RTA) is based on different reasons, different functions, also has a different mechanism of safeguards. The main function of global safeguards as a temporary instrument to protect domestic industry from serious injury or threat of serious injury caused by a surge in imports, as a result of the agreement on the level of tariff liberalization of trade between Member States of the WTO. So WTO member countries enjoy a certain level of policy flexibility tariff on trade liberalization. The mutual exemption of the global safeguards application among FTA parties is not inconsistent with the WTO Agreement in particular are not in line with the principle of non-discrimination (Most-Favored-Nation), provided that the parallelism condition is met. An FTA party may also take safeguards against another party as long as the restriction level from those safeguards does not harm the requirement associated with eliminating barriers with respect to substantially all trade. Bilateral and regional safeguards under the FTA are designed to be mechanism for adjusting the pace of further liberalization once FTA parties implement the tariff elimination plan as an agreement in BTA and RTA. Because of this fundamental function, the substantially all trade requirement under FTA provisions in the Article XXIV of GATT 1994 represent was the only relevant provisions of the relevant provisions under which bilateral and regional safeguards measures are disciplined. Any bilateral safeguards, which are applied to sector subject to FTA tariff elimination during the tariff elimination period and within the limits of the MFN tariff rate, which is consistent with WTO Agreement. Enforcement of global safeguards provisions, bilateral safeguards, and regional safeguards have substantive and procedural requirements mechanism in its application. Given the many possibilities for the application of safeguards, which forms overlap, FTA negotiators can take effective legislative solutions that incorporate the provisions of the FTA, which explicitly prohibits certain forms in case of adoption of unwanted overlap.

This thesis reveals how the global application of safeguards in comparison with bilateral and regional safeguards such safeguards, will also provide prescriptions about things to do in implementing the provisions of bilateral and regional safeguards between countries BTA and RTA member who is also the Member States WTO provisions which apply global safeguards."