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Abstrak :
Tulisan ini berfokus pada tatanan (order) arsitektural candi Jawa. Tulisan kontemporer kerap menelaah arsitektur candi menggunakan tatanan triparti, yang utamanya digunakan untuk membagi tampak candi ke dalam tiga bagian: badan, kepala, dan kaki. Meski umum digunakan, tatanan sederhana ini tidak merefleksikan secara akurat kompleksitas candi sehingga pembahasan arsitektural candi seringkali tidak rinci. Penulis mengusulkan sebuah sistem tatanan baru, yang penulis sebut sebagai “tatanan vāstu.” Tatanan ini direkonstruksi menggunakan metode riset arsitektural-historis yang membandingkan candi-candi Jawa serta struktur mancanegara terkait dalam lensa tipo-morfologis, didukung dengan analisis sastra arsitektural kuil India. Sampel candi meliputi 32 candi peribadatan tipe menara (prāsāda) dengan ciri Hindu dan Buddha yang berasal dari era Mataram Kuno (abad 8-11 M). Secara tatanan tapak, candi Jawa menunjukkan dua pola umum yang berkorespondensi dengan dua moda dasar perancangan maṇḍala; pola berjejer-berhadap yang banyak digunakan pada candi Hindu berkorespondensi dengan moda yantri, sementara pola konsentris yang banyak digunakan pada candi Buddha berkorespondensi dengan moda maṇḍala. Pada pola candi berjejer-berhadap, terdapat sejumlah unsur yang dapat dikaitkan dengan sejumlah aspek geografis/astronomis lokal dan konsep ruang Austronesia yang diduga bercampur dengan konsep arah India pada masa Mataram Kuno. Secara tata bangunan, semua sampel candi dapat dibagi secara visual ke dalam tujuh bagian yang dimiliki tatanan vāstu: upapÄ«á¹­ha, adhiṣṭhāna, pada, prastara, gala, śikhara, dan stÅ«pi. Namun pemeriksaan lebih mendalam menunjukkan bahwa tiap bagian memiliki elaborasi arsitektural yang cukup berbeda dengan norma Asia Selatan maupun Tenggara kontinental. Pengamatan ini memperkuat pendapat bahwa arsitektur candi Jawa menunjukkan pencampuran berbagai elemen asing menjadi gubahan tersendiri. Studi ini juga menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan sistem tatanan berbasis vāstu, alih-alih tripartit konvensional, memungkinkan penjabaran elemen arsitektur candi secara lebih rinci. Menerapkan dan menguji kesahihan tatanan vāstu pada candi mungkin dapat menghasilkan sistem tatanan arsitektur baru yang lebih bermanfaat untuk menelaah arsitektur candi Jawa serta kedudukannya dalam jaring pertukaran budaya antara India dan Asia Tenggara. ...... This paper focuses on the architectural order of ancient Javanese temples. Contemporary writings often use a tripartite order to conceptualize Javanese temple architecture, which divide the edifice into three-part consisting of head, body, and feet. However, the overgeneralized nature of the order does not accurately represent the complexities of Javanese temples and this has made architectural discussion of temples somewhat limited and undetailed. Further, the textual basis of this order is questionable. To support more nuanced discussion of Javanese temple architecture, the author proposes an alternative architecture order, dubbed the “vāstu order.” This order is reconstructed using architectural-historical research method that compares extant Javanese temples with related South and Southeast Asian structures in a typo-morphological lens, supported by analysis of historical treatise pertaining Indian temple architecture. Samples include 32 Hindu and Buddhist Javanese temples in the general shape of a tower (prāsāda) from the ancient Mataram era (8-11th century). In terms of spatial order, Javanese temples show two general pattern that correspond to two basic design mode in architectural maṇḍala; the linear-opposing configuration commonly observed in Hindu complexes corresponds to the yantric mode, while the concentric configuration commonly observed in Buddhist complexes corresponds to the maṇḍalic mode. In the linear-opposing configuration, there are a number of elements that can be attributed to indigenous concept of space which may have intermingled with Indian-derived concept of space during the Mataram era. In terms of building order, all samples can visually divided into seven parts of the vāstu order: upapÄ«á¹­ha, adhiṣṭhāna, pada, prastara, gala, śikhara, and stÅ«pi. However, further inspection shows that each part has unusual or even unprecedented architectural elaboration from the supposed Indian protype. These observations contribute to the notion that Javanese temples shows complex amalgamation of various Indian architectural elements into a distinct creative form. This study demonstrates that a conceptual shift from the conventional tripartite order into a more refined vāstu order permitted more detailed observations in various architectural elements of Javanese temples. Applying and testing the vāstu order to other temples would perhaps yield a more robust architectural order that is useful in revealing the nature of Javanese temple architecture and its position within the web of cultural exchange between India and Southeast Asia.

Abstrak :
This article focuses on a Bugis nautical chart of Nusantara (the Malay Archipelago) from the early nineteenth century known as the Utrecht Map. There are only a few surviving copies of similar Bugis maps, all confiscated from local “pirates” during the colonial era. While graphical elements of the map undoubtedly point to prototypical European maps, careful analysis of its annotations reveals extensive linguistic modification better to reflect Bugis maritime knowledge. Not only are they completely written in Lontara’, the indigenous script of the Bugis, Euro-centric toponyms from contemporaneous maps are consistently replaced by locally derived toponyms from an oral and written tradition unknown to Europeans. In colonial frameworks, maps could be used as powerful instruments of control which eroded indigenous spatial knowledge. As part of an ongoing efforts to decolonize our understanding of maps, critique of western maps should be complemented by discussions of nonwestern maps which foreground indigenous knowledge or counter-mapping elements. The use of indigenous elements can be regarded as a fascinating case of counter-mapping and a decolonial effort initiated by the anonymous, everyday people of Nusantara