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"Orbit Bumi paling strategis untuk mendapatkan manfaat terbesar dari penggunaan satelit merupakan Orbit Geostasioner. Penggunaan Orbit Geostasioner, yakni disebut sebagai ‘alokasi’, diatur secara khusus oleh International Telecommunications Union dan bertujuan agar negara dapat meluncurkan dan menempatkan satelit pada orbit tersebut. Namun disaat yang sama, permintaan tinggi dan persaingan ketat untuk mendapatkan izin tersebut mendesak negara untuk melakukan permintaan posisi Orbit Geostasioner di atas kertas tanpa melaksanakan penggunaan orbit yang telah diberikan. Fenomena tersebut dikenal sebagai fenomena paper satellites dan menjadi metode yang digunakan oleh negarauntuk menyalahgunakan alokasi Orbit Geostasioner. Melalui metode penelitian normatif-yuridis serta berbagai bahan kepustakaan, penelitian dalam Skripsi ini membahas tentang fenomena ‘paper satellites’ melalui praktik pemanfaatan alokasi Orbit Geostasioner negara Tonga, Iran, dan Indonesia. Berdasarkan praktik Tonga dan Iran, kekurangan pengaturan ITU terhadap ketentuan pencatatan alokasi Orbit Geostasioner dalam Master International Frequency Register dan kekurangan pengaturan ITU terhadap ketentuan bring into use menyebabkan praktik paper satellites terjadi.Oleh karena itu, ketidaksiapan ITU dalam mengantisipasi fenomena paper satellites menyebabkan negara menyalahgunakan alokasi Orbit Geostasioner. Namun berdasarkan praktik Indonesia, tidak semua praktik negara yang terduga sebagai fenomena paper satellites dapat dianggap fenomena paper satellites berdasarkan keadaan dan kondisi tertentu.

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The Geostationary Orbit is the most strategic orbit for satellite usage. The usage of a Geostationary Orbit, which is referred to as an ’allocation’, is regulated by the International Telecommunications Union and the permit to use such orbit is meant to enable a country to launch and place a satellited in a specific Geostationary Orbit. However, high demands and intense competition for these permits have forced countries to request Geostationary Orbital positions on paper without carrying out the use of the Geostationary Orbit that have been granted. These phenomena is known as paper satellites, or satellites on paper and has become a method to misuse the allocation of Geostationary Orbits. Through a normative-juridical study method which was sourced from various bibliographical materials, this Thesis discusses the phenomena of 'paper satellites', through the state practices of Tonga, Iran, and Indonesia. Based on the state practices of Tonga and Iran, The lack of ITU regulations regarding the provisions for recording Geostationary Orbit allocations in the Master Internatinal Frequency Register and the lack of ITU regulations regarding the provisions for the “bring into use” of Geostationary Orbit allocations allowed the paper satellites phenomena to occur. Therefore, ITU was unprepared in anticapting the phenomenon of paper satellites which lead to the misuse of Geostasionary Orbit allocations. However, based on certain conditions and circumstances found in the state practice of Indonesia, not all suspected state practices can be considered as a paper satellite phenomenon.

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"GSO segment above the Indonesia area was ever claimed by Indonesia's Government under its sovereignty, but in the subsequent development its sovereignty claim was changed to the preservation right claim in the use to put satellite in a certain place. Ratification of the 1967 space treaty made by Indonesia could influential to the position of Indonesia against the claimed to the GSO segment. The juridical and comparative method was used to examination the data above, the data was examined qualitatively. From the examination's data could be concluded that after the ratification's Indonesia cannot based on the reason again that Indonesia did not bound the 1967 Space Treaty against the Indonesian's claims in the GOS segment. Although Indonesia still have an interest for the sake of use in the GSO segment, but the Indonesia has to implement the Space Treaty 1967 in its activities."

"Perbedaan hukum nasional masing – masing negara anggota terhadap penerapan aturan perjanjian internasional pada negaranya umumnya menghasilkan perbedaan jangka waktu terhadap implementasi perjanjian internasional. Hal ini kemudian menimbulkan kesulitan bagi para negara anggota untuk menyeragamkan aturan tersebut demi tercapainya maksud dan tujuan dalam perjanjian, khususnya aturan teknis yang memerlukan tanggapan cepat para negara anggota untuk segera mengimplementasikannya. Maka dari itu, beberapa perjanjian internasional serta organisasi internasional layaknya International Maritime Organization memperkenalkan sistem tacit acceptance atau penerimaan secara diam – diam sebagai salah mekanisme pilihan bagi negara untuk tunduk. Penggunaan mekanisme tacit acceptance kemudian menjadi salah satu opsi bagi para pihak dalam mempergunakan aturan perjanjian internasional pada saat yang mendesak dan instrumen penundukkan secara eksplisit tidak mungkin dilakukan. Metode penelitian yang dipergunakan adalah yuridis normatif dengan tujuan untuk melihat bagaimana implementasi tacit acceptance melalui beragam jenis tacit pada perjanjian internasional, serta bagaimana negara dan perjanjian internasional mendefinisikan dan mempergunakan tacit acceptance. Berdasarkan penelitian hukum normatif yang dilakukan, ditemukan kesimpulan bahwa mekanisme tacit pada umumnya dapat diberlakukan hanya kepada negara anggota ataupun para pihak yang dianggap layak oleh perjanjian internasional ataupun putusan pengadilan. Walaupun demikian, dapat ditemukan praktik oleh negara ketiga yang mempergunakan mekanisme tacit acceptance terhadap perjanjian internasional, misalnya Republik Kazakhstan terhadap Liability Convention 1972 melalui perjanjian bilateral 1994 Lease Agreement dengan Federasi Rusia mengenai Baikonur Cosmodrome. Adapun hal yang ditemukan adalah negara ketiga dapat memberlakukan mekanisme tacit berdasarkan pernyataan dalam bentuk tertulis, misalnya pada perjanjian yang terpisah. Terlihat bahwa mekanisme tacit memiliki implementasi dan parameter yang berbeda-beda dalam setiap peristiwa hukum, sehingga mekanisme ini dipergunakan dalam berbagai aspek dan tidak hanya terbatas pada lingkup lingkungan atau maritim saja.

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The differences on the national laws of each member states regarding to the application of the international treaties provisions may result in the different timeline for the provision’s applicability. This, however, makes several member states has the difficulties to achieve the object and purpose of the treaty, especially technical provisions that requires contracting parties for a quick response by implement and enforce them immediately. Furthermore, several treaties and international organizations, such as the International Maritime Organization introduce a system that is called tacit acceptance as a mechanism of choice for member states to give their consent to be bound. The use of tacit acceptance becoming one of the options for parties to implement international agreements at the time of urgency and explicit instruments for showing consent is not possible for the time being. Based on the normative legal research method, it is concluded that tacit acceptance in general is applicable only to the member state or parties deemed appropriate by the treaty itself or court decisions. Nevertheless, it can also be found that third states are using tacit acceptance on treaties, such as Republic of Kazakhstan with Liability Convention 1972 through 1994 Lease Agreement with Russian Federation that regulates about Baikonur Cosmodrome. Third state, in fact, is able to apply tacit acceptance to show their consent through a written form in a separate agreement. Moreover, it can be seen that the tacit mechanism has different implementations and parameters for various legal affair. Having said that, tacit acceptance as a tool for showing one’s consent to be bound is utilized in various aspects and not limited to the environmental and/or maritime subjects."

"Mega-Konstelasi Satelit di Low Earth Orbit (MegaLEO) merupakan fenomena eksplorasi dan pemanfaatan ruang angkasa baru yang didorong oleh kemajuan teknologi. Peluncuran MegaLEO berpotensi menghasilkan space debris yang mengancam lingkungan ruang angkasa. Karakteristik teknis MegaLEO membuat potensi timbulnya space debris yang berada di Orbit Bumi, terutama LEO, menjadi semakin tinggi. Berdasarkan hukum internasional, negara-negara memiliki kewajiban internasional untuk tidak mencemari lingkungan ruang angkasa. Mitigasi space debris merupakan hal penting yang dapat dilakukan untuk menjamin setiap negara bertanggung jawab untuk menjaga lingkungan ruang angkasa dari harmful contamination. Beragam organisasi internasional telah mengeluarkan instrumen-instrumen pedoman mitigasi space debris seperti UNCOPUOS Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines dan IADC Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines dan telah diinkorporasikan di tingkat nasional oleh negara-negara, utamanya spacefaring nations. Penelitian ini bertujuan ini melihat bagaimana mitigasi space debris yang berpotensi dihasilkan oleh MegaLEO diatur dalam hukum internasional. Metode penelitian yang digunakan untuk menjawab tujuan penelitian tersebut adalah yuridis normatif atau doktrinal. Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa upaya mitigasi space debris yang ada saat ini belum cukup untuk menekan pertumbuhan space debris dan belum dapat secara efektif mengatasi masalah space debris yang disebabkan oleh MegaLEO. Hal ini didasari pada peningkatan keberadaan space debris di orbit bumi sejak MegaLEO diluncurkan. Dengan demikian, perlu dilakukannya pengkajian ulang atas guidelines mitigasi space debris yang dan perlu dilakukan penelitian lanjutan terkait penerapan upaya penanggulangan space debris lainnya seperti upaya remediasi berupa Active Debris Removal.

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Mega-Constellation of Satellites in Low Earth Orbit (MegaLEO) is a new phenomenon of space exploration and utilization driven by technological advances. The launch of MegaLEO has the potential to produce space debris that threatens the space environment. The technical characteristics of MegaLEO make the potential creation of space debris in Earth orbit, especially LEO, even higher. Under international law, states have an international obligation not to pollute the space environment. Space debris mitigation is an important thing that can be done to ensure that every country is responsible for protecting the space environment from harmful contamination. Various international organizations have issued space debris mitigation guidance instruments such as the UNCOPUOS Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines and IADC Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines and have been incorporated at the national level by countries, especially by spacefaring nations. The aim of this research is to look at how mitigation of space debris that could potentially be generated by MegaLEO is regulated in international law. The research method used to answer the research objectives is normative juridical or doctrinal. This research found that existing space debris mitigation efforts are not sufficient to suppress the growth of space debris and cannot effectively overcome the space debris problem caused by MegaLEO. This is based on the increase in the presence of space debris in Earth's orbit since MegaLEO was launched. Thus, it is necessary to review the existing space debris mitigation guidelines and further research needs to be carried out regarding the implementation of other space debris management efforts, such as remediation efforts in the form of Active Debris Removal."

"Sejak awal kemunculan space era, masyarakat internasional telah mendorong secara keras penggunaan ruang angkasa untuk tujuan damai (peaceful purposes). Namun, pengertian peaceful belum ada yang pasti hingga kini. Apakah kegiatan militer diperbolehkan atau tidak. Pada faktanya, sejak peluncuran Sputnik I, satelit tersebut sudah digunakan untuk tujuan militer. Sehingga, penjelasan mengenai kegiatan militer apa saja yang diperbolehkan di ruang angkasa menjadi sangatlah penting. Selain itu, mengingat semakin bergantungnya negara dengan teknologi ruang angkasa, dimulaui pengembangan teknologi anti-satellite untuk melindungi aset-aset nasional di ruang angkasa. Sejak tahun 1950an, sudah dilaksanakan uji coba anti-satellite weapons oleh Amerika Serikat dan Uni Soviet yang mana banyak menimbulkan pertanyaan apakah kegiatan tersebut sesuai dengan prinsip peaceful purposes atau tidak. Oleh karena itu, juga perlu diketahui bentuk dari threat atau use of force dan pengecualiannya di ruang angkasa.

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Since the dawn of space era, international community has voiced the use of outer space for peaceful purposes. However, there is no authoritative definition regard of peaceful until today. In fact, since the launced of Sputnik I, its objective was military purposes. Thus, it is important to know which one of military activity in outer space is permissible. Moreover, the increasing of national's dependency on space-based asset, make the states develope the anti-satellite to protect their national space asset. The employment of anti-satellite began since the late of 1950s by United States and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The test raised questions on its compliance with peaceful purposes principle. Therefore, it is also important to know the form of threat and use of force and its execptions in space."