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"Berdasarkan Survei Sosial Ekonomi Nasional (Susenas) dan sensus penduduk sejak 2010, penelitian ini menguji pengaruh keragaman etnis terhadap ketimpangan pengeluaran di Indonesia. Ini dicapai dengan menggunakan estimasi OLS menggunakan ethnic fractionalization index (efi) dan ethnic polarization index (epoi) sebagai proksi keanekaragaman etnis. Tanpa variabel kontrol, ethnic fractionalization index adalah positif dan signifikan dalam mempengaruhi ketimpangan pengeluaran di Indonesia. Tidak seperti ethnic fractionalization index, ethnic polarization index dan ketimpangan pengeluaran memiliki hubungan berbentuk U terbalik. Namun, pengaruh keragaman etnis kurang signifikan ketika variabel kontrol ditambahkan ke estimasi. Selain itu, efek keanekaragaman etnis kehilangan signifikansinya ketika memasukkan dummy wilayah ke dalam estimasi. Kami menemukan bahwa semua dummy wilayah secara signifikan mempengaruhi ketimpangan dan mengurangi efek keragaman etnis. Akhirnya, dimasukkannya interaksi antara proxy keragaman etnis dan dummy wilayah mengungkapkan hasil yang tidak terduga. Meskipun tidak signifikan, baik interaksi ethnic fractionalization index atau ethnic polarization index dengan dummy wilayah menunjukkan hubungan negatif.

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Based on the National Socio-Economic Survey (Susenas) and population census from 2010, this study examines the effect of ethnic diversity on expenditure inequality in Indonesia. This is achieved using the OLS estimation using ethnic fractionalization index (efi) and ethnic polarization index (epoi) as the proxy of ethnic diversity. Without the control variable, the ethnic fractionalization index is positive and significant in affecting expenditure inequality in Indonesia. Unlike the ethnic fractionalization index, the ethnic polarization index and expenditure inequality have an inverted U-shaped relationship. However, the effect of ethnic diversity is less significant when control variables are added to the estimation. Additionally, the effect of ethnic diversity loses its significance when incorporating regional dummies into the estimation. We found that all regional dummies significantly affect inequality and diminish the ethnic diversity effect. Finally, the inclusion of the interaction term between ethnic diversity proxy and regional dummies reveals an unexpected result. Though not significant, both interactions of the ethnic fractionalization index or the ethnic polarization index with regional dummies show a negative relationship."

"Ketimpangan pendapatan dan kemiskinan telah menjadi permasalahan utama dalam studi pembangunan sejak tahun 1970-an. Meskipun ada berbagai faktor yang secara teoritis terkait dengan insiden kemiskinan dan ketimpangan pendapatan, pilihan mengenai jenis dan struktur pengeluaran pemerintah sering dikutip sebagai salah satu faktor penentu penting. Namun, bukti ilmiah atas permasalahan ini masih belum bisa disimpulkan, dan penelitian atas kasus di Indonesia masih sangat sedikit. Penelitian ini mencoba untuk berkontribusi dengan memanfaatkan data panel 33 propinsi dari tahun 2005 sampai dengan 2017 untuk menguji pengaruh berbagai jenis pengeluaran pemerintah terhadap ketimpangan pendapatan dan kemiskinan di Indonesia. Dengan menggunakan fixed effect, random effect, dan Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SURE) sistem, penelitian ini menemukan bahwa bantuan sosial, subsidi dan pengeluaran hibah memiliki efek yang tidak signifikan dalam mengurangi ketimpangan pendapatan dan kemiskinan di Indonesia. Namun, bukti empiris menunjukkan bahwa pengeluaran infrastruktur memiliki korelasi negatif dengan ketimpangan pendapatan di daerah perkotaan (ketika menggunakan random effect model), dan daerah pedesaan (ketika menggunakan fixed effect model), keduanya signifikan secara statistik pada tingkat 5%. Selain itu, pengeluaran infrastruktur juga berkorelasi negatif dan signifikan dengan kemiskinan di Indonesia, dan dampaknya lebih signifikan di daerah pedesaan daripada perkotaan.

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The issues of income inequality and poverty have become key issues in development studies since the 1970s. Although there are various factors theoretically associated with the incidence of poverty and income inequality, choices regarding the types and structure of government expenditure are often quoted as one of the crucial determinants. However, the evidence is still inconclusive, and the research about these issues in the case of Indonesia is still minimum. This paper tries to contribute to the discussion by analysing a panel data set of 33 provinces from 2005 to 2017 to examine the effect of different types of government expenditure on income inequality and poverty in Indonesia. Using the fixed effect, random effect, and Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SURE) system, this paper finds that social aid, subsidy and grant expenditure have an insignificant effect on reducing income inequality and poverty in Indonesia. However, the empirical evidence suggests that infrastructure spending has a negative correlation with income inequality in urban areas (when using the random effect model), and rural areas (when using the fixed effect model), both are statistically significant at the 5% level. In addition, infrastructure expenditure is also negatively and significantly correlated with poverty in Indonesia, and the impact is more significant in rural than urban areas."

"The objective of this study is to examine the effects of education expenditure towards income inequality in Indonesia. The measure of income inequality used is Gini coefficient. The study is conducted using panel data of 33 provinces in Indonesia during 2007 to 2016. By using panel random effects model, the result conveys that education expenditure and Gini coefficient is positively related. In other words, an increase in education expenditure does not always lead to income inequality reduction. By looking at the short-run and long-run effects, this study finds that income inequality falls with rising education expenditure in the short-run but increases in the long-run. It implies that income inequality reduction effect through increasing education expenditure in Indonesia is not sustainable in the long-term. In addition, the study also finds that poverty rate and economic growth increases income inequality implying that the benefits of the rising economy only go to the middle to upper-class society rather than the poor.

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Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menguji pengaruh pengeluaran pendidikan terhadap ketimpangan pendapatan. Ukuran ketimpangan pendapatan yang digunakan adalah koefisien Gini. Penelitian ini menggunakan data panel dari 33 provinsi di Indonesia dari tahun 2007 hingga 2016. Dengan menggunakan model panel random effects, terbukti bahwa pengeluaran pendidikan dan koefisien Gini berhubungan positif. Dapat diartikan bahwa peningkatan alokasi pengeluaran pendidikan tidak mengarah pada pengurangan ketimpangan pendapatan. Dengan melihat dari sisi efek jangka pendek dan jangka panjang, studi ini menemukan bahwa ketimpangan pendapatan menurun dengan meningkatnya pengeluaran pendidikan dalam jangka pendek tetapi meningkat dalam jangka panjang. Dengan demikian, efek penurunan ketimpangan pendapatan melalui peningkatan pengeluaran pendidikan di Indonesia tidak berkelanjutan dalam jangka panjang. Terlebih lagi, penelitian ini juga menemukan bahwa tingkat kemiskinan dan pertumbuhan ekonomi meningkatkan ketimpangan pendapatan, yang menyiratkan bahwa manfaat dari kenaikan ekonomi hanya diterima oleh masyarakat kelas menengah ke atas melainkan masyrakat miskin."

"Berdasarkan Survey Sosial Ekonomi Nasional SUSENAS, penelitian ini mencoba untuk menganalisa faktor ndash; faktor yang mempengaruhi ketiimpangan terhadap pengeluaran rumah tangga di sektor kesehatan dengan menggunakan metode dekomposisi ketimpangan: dekomposisi terhadap komponen ndash; komponen pengeluaran rumah tangga, dan dekomposisi terhadap sub ndash; grup populasi. Kami menemukan bahwa ketimpangan terhadap komponen ndash; komponen pengeluaran rumah tangga untuk non ndash; makanan lebih besar dibandingkan komponen pengeluaran rumah tangga untuk makanan. Di antara komponen ndash; komponen pengeluaran rumah tangga untuk non ndash; makanan, ketimpangan terhadap pengeluaran di sektor kesehatan sangatlah tinggi dan polanya cenderung stabil. Hal ini menandakan bahwa terdapat banyak rumah tangga yang masih belum mampu untuk mengakses fasilitas ndash; fasilitas kesehatan dan situasi tersebut tidak berubah selang periode penelitian. Lebih lanjut, disparitas ketimpangan di sektor kesehatan tersebut yang terjadi di antara wilayah ndash; wilayah peneltian sangatlah kecil, sehingga dapat dikatakan bahwa ketimpangan yang besar terhadap pengeluaran di sektor kesehatan terjadi di masing ndash; masing wilayah terutama pada daerah perkotaan. Sementara itu di antara rumah tangga yang tidak memiliki akses terhadap air minum yang berkualitas/layak terdapat banyak rumah tangga miskin yang tidak mampu untuk mengakses pelayanan kesehatan yang berkualitas. Terkait hal ndash; hal tersebut, para pembuat kebijakan kedepannya diharapkan dapat lebih fokus kepada ketimpangan yang terjadi di masing ndash; masing wilayah/provinsi terutama pada daerah perkotaan. Lebih lanjut, Pemerintah juga harus membangun fasilitas ndash; fasilitas kesehatan yang terjangkau untuk seluruh lapisan masyarakat, serta meningkatkan kualitas dan kuantitas tenaga medis yang bekerja di fasilitas ndash; fasilitas kesehatan tersebut.

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Based on the National Socioeconomic Survey, this study attempts to explore the factors of health expenditure inequality by using two inequality decomposition methods decomposition by expenditure components and decomposition by population sub groups. It is found that non food expenditure inequality is much higher than food expenditure inequality. Among non food expenditure inequalities, health expenditure inequality is very high and quite stable, suggesting that many households could not afford to pay for high quality health care services and this situation has not been improved. Health expenditure disparity between regions is very small, meaning that a very large health expenditure inequality exists within each region, particularly urban areas. Households who have access to qualified water have a much lower health expenditure inequality than those who have no or limited access, suggesting that among those who have no or limited access, there is a large number of very poor households who cannot afford to pay for decent health care services. Policy makers should focus more on health expenditure inequality within urban areas in each region. The government should establish more low cost health care centers, particularly in urban areas in each region and increase medical doctors who could work in these health care centers."

"[ABSTRAKPenelitian ini menyelidiki pengaruh perubahan kebijakan fiskal selamapelaksanaan desentralisasi fiskal terhadap ketimpangan di Indonesia. Denganmenggunakan data panel dari 27 provinsi selama periode 2001-2012, penelitianini menjelaskan dampak dari peraturan baru tentang desentralisasi fiskal terhadapketimpangan pengeluaran. Penelitian ini menggunakan koefisien Gini, Theil L,dan Theil T sebagai ukuran ketimpangan, sedangkan variabel independen meliputiindeks desentralisasi fiskal (FDA dan FDB), PDRB per kapita (pcGRDP) danPDRB per kapita kuadrat (pcGRDP kuadrat). Variabel independen PDRB perkapita dan PDRB per kapita kuadrat berfungsi sebagai variabel kontrol.Hasil regresi panel menunjukkan bahwa selama pelaksanaan Undang-Undang Nomor 25 tahun 1999 (2001-2004), desentralisasi fiskal berdampaknegatif pada ketimpangan. Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa desentralisasi fiskalmengakibatkan peningkatan ketimpangan pengeluaran. Semakin besardesentralisasi fiskal menyebabkan semakin besarnya ketimpangan pengeluaran.Perubahan undang-undang desentralisasi fiskal tahun 2004 menunjukkan bahwaketimpangan dapat dikurangi. Meskipun pengaruh desentralisasi fiskal padaketimpangan masih negatif setelah tahun 2004, besar dampaknya jauh lebih kecil.

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ABSTRACTThis study attempts to investigate the effect of change in fiscal regulationduring implementation of fiscal decentralization on inequality in Indonesia. Usinga provincial panel data set consisting of 27 provinces during 2001-2012 periods,this study explains the impact of new regulation on fiscal decentralization onexpenditure inequality. This study employs Gini coefficient, Theil L, and Theil Tas a measure of inequality, while independent variables include indices of fiscaldecentralization (FDA and FDB), per capita GRDP (pcGRDP) and per capitaGRDP squared (pcGRDP squared). Independent variables, pc GRDP and pcGRDPsquared serve as control variables.The panel regression results show that during the implementation of the lawNo.25/1999 (i.e., from 2001 to 2004), fiscal decentralization has a negative impacton inequality. In particular, this study finds that fiscal decentralization appears tohave increased expenditure inequality. Higher degree of fiscal decentralizationviiUniversitas Indonesiainduces larger expenditure inequality. However, the implementation of the revisedfiscal decentralization law in 2004 seems to have mitigated inequality. Though theeffect of fiscal decentralization on inequality is still negative after 2004, themagnitude of the effect is much smaller.;This study attempts to investigate the effect of change in fiscal regulationduring implementation of fiscal decentralization on inequality in Indonesia. Usinga provincial panel data set consisting of 27 provinces during 2001-2012 periods,this study explains the impact of new regulation on fiscal decentralization onexpenditure inequality. This study employs Gini coefficient, Theil L, and Theil Tas a measure of inequality, while independent variables include indices of fiscaldecentralization (FDA and FDB), per capita GRDP (pcGRDP) and per capitaGRDP squared (pcGRDP squared). Independent variables, pc GRDP and pcGRDPsquared serve as control variables.The panel regression results show that during the implementation of the lawNo.25/1999 (i.e., from 2001 to 2004), fiscal decentralization has a negative impacton inequality. In particular, this study finds that fiscal decentralization appears tohave increased expenditure inequality. Higher degree of fiscal decentralizationviiUniversitas Indonesiainduces larger expenditure inequality. However, the implementation of the revisedfiscal decentralization law in 2004 seems to have mitigated inequality. Though theeffect of fiscal decentralization on inequality is still negative after 2004, themagnitude of the effect is much smaller.;This study attempts to investigate the effect of change in fiscal regulationduring implementation of fiscal decentralization on inequality in Indonesia. Usinga provincial panel data set consisting of 27 provinces during 2001-2012 periods,this study explains the impact of new regulation on fiscal decentralization onexpenditure inequality. This study employs Gini coefficient, Theil L, and Theil Tas a measure of inequality, while independent variables include indices of fiscaldecentralization (FDA and FDB), per capita GRDP (pcGRDP) and per capitaGRDP squared (pcGRDP squared). Independent variables, pc GRDP and pcGRDPsquared serve as control variables.The panel regression results show that during the implementation of the lawNo.25/1999 (i.e., from 2001 to 2004), fiscal decentralization has a negative impacton inequality. In particular, this study finds that fiscal decentralization appears tohave increased expenditure inequality. Higher degree of fiscal decentralizationviiUniversitas Indonesiainduces larger expenditure inequality. However, the implementation of the revisedfiscal decentralization law in 2004 seems to have mitigated inequality. Though theeffect of fiscal decentralization on inequality is still negative after 2004, themagnitude of the effect is much smaller., This study attempts to investigate the effect of change in fiscal regulationduring implementation of fiscal decentralization on inequality in Indonesia. Usinga provincial panel data set consisting of 27 provinces during 2001-2012 periods,this study explains the impact of new regulation on fiscal decentralization onexpenditure inequality. This study employs Gini coefficient, Theil L, and Theil Tas a measure of inequality, while independent variables include indices of fiscaldecentralization (FDA and FDB), per capita GRDP (pcGRDP) and per capitaGRDP squared (pcGRDP squared). Independent variables, pc GRDP and pcGRDPsquared serve as control variables.The panel regression results show that during the implementation of the lawNo.25/1999 (i.e., from 2001 to 2004), fiscal decentralization has a negative impacton inequality. In particular, this study finds that fiscal decentralization appears tohave increased expenditure inequality. Higher degree of fiscal decentralizationviiUniversitas Indonesiainduces larger expenditure inequality. However, the implementation of the revisedfiscal decentralization law in 2004 seems to have mitigated inequality. Though theeffect of fiscal decentralization on inequality is still negative after 2004, themagnitude of the effect is much smaller.]"

"Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh penggunaan internet terhadap pendapatan per kapita pada kelompok kabupaten/kota dengan mengelompokkan kelas pendapatan 40% pendapatan rendah, 40% pendapatan sedang, dan 20% pendapatan tertinggi serta pengaruh penggunaan internet terhadap ketimpangan pendapatan. Penelitian ini dilakukan pada 34 provinsi dengan 507 kabupaten, pada rentang waktu tahun 2018 – 2020, data diperoleh dari Survey Sosial Ekonomi Nasional (SUSENAS) dan Survey Angkatan Kerja Nasional (SAKERNAS), Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS), dan dari instansi Direktorat Jenderal Perimbangan Keuangan Kementerian keuangan. Metode analisis yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah fixed effect model. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian penggunaan internet pada kelompok pendapatan rendah berpengaruh positif signifikan terhadap pendapatan per kapita, pada kelompok pendapatan menengah berpengaruh positif signifikan terhadap pendapatan per kapita, sedangkan penggunaan internet pada kelompok pendapatan tinggi tidak berpengaruh terhadap pendapatan per kapita. Penggunaan internet berpengaruh negatif signifikan terhadap ketimpangan pendapatan.

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The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of internet use on income inequality and per capita income in the districts/cities by classifying income groups as 40% low income, 40% middle income, and 20% high income. This study was conducted in 507 districts of 34 provinces for the period of 2018 – 2020. Data were obtained from the National Socioeconomic Survey (Survei Sosial Ekonomi Nasional; SUSENAS), the National Labor Force Survey (Survei Angkatan Kerja Nasional; SAKERNAS), the Statistics Indonesia (Badan Pusat Statistik; BPS), and the Directorate General of Fiscal Balance, the Ministry of Finance, whereas the data analysis applied the fixed effects model. Based on the results of the study, it is known that internet use has a positive and significant effect on income per capita in the low-income and middle- income groups. And high-income groups has no effect on income per capita. Meanwhile, the effect of internet use has a negative significant relationship to income inequality."

"Conflict is a socio economic phenomenon that has trended upward since the end of the Cold War all over the world and causes a condition called global tension. Indonesia has high ethnic diversity and high income inequality and thus has also seen an upward trend of conflict that is called Indonesian tension. Because of the upward trend, there are many studies about conflict, but the results are divergent. It is debatable whether conflict was caused by social issues such as ethnic diversity or economic aspects such as income inequality.This research aims to examine the relationship between ethnic diversity and income inequality in the intensity of conflict by using Village Potency PODES 2011 combined with Population Census 2010 and National Social Economic Survey Susenas 2010. Econometrics estimations using Ordinary Least Square OLS and Zero Inflated Negative Binomial ZINB regression combining with descriptive analysis confirm that there is a U shaped correlation between EFI and the intensity of conflict and a positive correlation between the income gap and the intensity of conflict.Another result is that economic aspects such as electricity, poor people and slum households more influenced the intensity of conflict than social aspects. The implication of these findings is that improvement in economic aspects is the more preferable policy to reduce the intensity of conflict rather than focusing on ethnic diversity, which is heritage and cannot be changed.

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Konflik adalah sebuah fenomena sosial dan ekonmi dengan tren yang meningkat setelah perang dingin berakhir di seluruh dunia dan menyebabkan adanya kondisi bernama global tension. Kondisi seperti global tension juga dialami oleh Indonesia yang merupakan negara dengan tingkat keberagaman etnik dan ketimpangan yang tinggi atau disebut sebagai Indonesian tension. Dikarenakan tren yang meningkat ini, banyak studi membahas tentang konflik namun menghasilkan kesimpulan yang berbeda. Hasilnya adalah terjadi perdebatan mengenai penyebab konflik apakah disebabkan oleh aspek sosial seperti keberagaman etnik atau aspek ekonomi seperti ketimpangan pendapatan.Penelitian ini meneliti hubungan antara keberagaman etnik dan ketimpangan pendapatan terhadap intensitas konflik di Indonesia menggunakan PODES 2011 dikombinasikan Sensus Penduduk 2010 dan Susenas 2010. Penelitian ini menggunakan regresi OLS dan ZINB dikombinasikan dengan analisis deskriptif mengonfirmasi adanya hubungan berbentuk U antara EFI dan intensitas/jumlah konflik dan adanya hubungan positif antara ketimpangan pendapatan terhadap intensitas/jumlah konflik.Hasil lainnya adalah variabel kontrol dalam aspek ekonomi seperti tingkat listrik, kodisi kemiskinan serta rumah tangga di kawasan kumuh lebih berpengaruh ke intensitas/jumlah konflik dibandingkan dengan variabel kontrol dalam aspek sosial. Implikasi kebijakan yang dapat dilakukan adalah perbaikan di aspek ekonomi untuk mengurangi konflik di Indonesia dibanding fokus pada keberagaman etnik merupakan warisan yang tidak dapat ditolak."

"Tesis ini membahas tentang pengaruh lansia dan pension coverage yang meliputi jaminan pensiun dan jaminan hari tua terhadap pengeluaran pendidikan anak di Indonesia. Jaminan pensiun selama ini dianggap dapat memberikan manfaat khususnya untuk para lansia di masa tua. Adanya jaminan pensiun juga diduga memengaruhi alokasi pengeluaran rumah tangga khususnya pada investasi pendidikan. Penelitian ini ingin menjawab pertanyaan apakah benar cakupan jaminan pensiun (pension coverage) dapat mempengaruhi pengeluaran pendidikan anak. Dengan menggunakan metode OLS pooled cross section diteliti hubungan antara variabel jaminan pensiun dan investasi pendidikan anak. Hasilnya menunjukkan adanya hubungan yang positif dan signifikan antara pension coverage dan pengeluaran pendidikan anak. Penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memberikan kontribusi bagi pemerintah terkait sosialisasi dan perluasan program jaminan pensiun sehingga dapat meningkatkan kesejahteraan anak dan kesejahteraan rumah tangga di masa mendatang.

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This thesis discusses the effect of older people and pension coverage, including pension and old age benefits, on children's education expenses in Indonesia. Pension guarantees have been considered to be able to provide benefits, especially for older people in their old age. The existence of a pension guarantee is also thought to affect the allocation of household spending, especially on education investment. This study wants to answer the question of whether pension coverage can indeed affect children's education expenses. The relationship between pension security and investment in children's education was investigated using the OLS pooled cross-section method. The results show a positive and significant relationship between pension coverage and children's education expenses. This research is expected to contribute to the government regarding socialization and expansion of the pension security program to improve children's and household welfare in the future."

"Penelitian ini meneliti dampak dari pengeluaran pendidikan pemerintah terhadap kesenjangan pengeluaran rumah tangga di Indonesia. Hal tersebut dilatarbelakangi adanya keterbatasan kemampuan keuangan pemerintah. Alokasi yang tepat khususnya pada sektor pendidikan diharapkan dapat mendorong pengurangan kemiskinan dan kesenjangan sosial. Berdasarkan penelitian menggunakan data level provinsi di Indonesia dengan periode 2003 sampai dengan 2011 dan menggunakan fixed effect model, peneliti menemukan bahwa kenaikan anggaran pendidikan samapai dengan 20% mampu untuk mengurangi Koefisien Gini sebesar 1,601. Oleh karena itu kebijakan ini mampu untuk mengurangi kesenjangan pengeluaran antar rumah tangga di Indonesia. Temuan lainnya, dampak desentralisasi pengelolaan dana pendidikan secara statistik tidak signifikan. Hal ini berarti bahwa baik dana pendidikan dikelola oleh pemerintah pusat maupun pemerintah daerah, dampak pengeluaran pendidikan pemerintah terhadap kesenajang pengeluaran ruamh tangga relatif sama.

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This study investigates the impact of government education spending on expenditure inequality in Indonesia. Since the government of Indonesia has limited resources to finance public sector, right budget allocation on public sector, particularly education is expected to encourage reducing poverty and inequalities. By investigating data across provinces in 2003-2011 using fixed effect model, this study finds that increase in the proportion of the education spending up to 20% of the government budget are able to reduce gini coefficient by 1.601. Therefore, this policy are able to reduce expenditure inequality among households in Indonesia. Another finding is that the impact of dezentralization of the education spending on expenditure inequality is statistically insignificant. It means that wether the manager of education funds is central governmnet or local government, the impact of education spending on expenditure inequality among households is relatively the same."

"Dengan menggunakan Survei Sosial Ekonomi Nasional Indonesia tahun 2013 studi ini ingin melihat ketimpangan dari perspektif perkawinan apakah perkawinan berdasarkan tingkat pendidikan ada serta apakah ada dampaknya terhadap ketimpangan pengeluaran di Indonesia Korelasi Kendall rsquos Tau digunakan untuk melihat kekuatan korelasi tingkat pendidikan suami dan istri Indeks Gini dibuat untuk melihat seberapa besar ketimpangan pengeluaran di Indonesia Dengan membandingkan kondisi nyata dan kontrafakta studi ini menemukan bahwa perkawinan berdasarkan tingkat pendidikan terjadi dan memiliki dampak terhadap membesarnya ketimpangan pengeluaran di Indonesia Studi ini juga menemukan bahwa partisipasi angkatan kerja status kerja kepemilikan anak dan lama kawin suatu pasangan secara signifikan membuat pengeluaran antar pasangan bervariasi dan menyebabkan memburuknya ketimpangan pengeluaran di Indonesia."