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"The objective of this study is to examine the effects of education expenditure towards income inequality in Indonesia. The measure of income inequality used is Gini coefficient. The study is conducted using panel data of 33 provinces in Indonesia during 2007 to 2016. By using panel random effects model, the result conveys that education expenditure and Gini coefficient is positively related. In other words, an increase in education expenditure does not always lead to income inequality reduction. By looking at the short-run and long-run effects, this study finds that income inequality falls with rising education expenditure in the short-run but increases in the long-run. It implies that income inequality reduction effect through increasing education expenditure in Indonesia is not sustainable in the long-term. In addition, the study also finds that poverty rate and economic growth increases income inequality implying that the benefits of the rising economy only go to the middle to upper-class society rather than the poor.

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Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menguji pengaruh pengeluaran pendidikan terhadap ketimpangan pendapatan. Ukuran ketimpangan pendapatan yang digunakan adalah koefisien Gini. Penelitian ini menggunakan data panel dari 33 provinsi di Indonesia dari tahun 2007 hingga 2016. Dengan menggunakan model panel random effects, terbukti bahwa pengeluaran pendidikan dan koefisien Gini berhubungan positif. Dapat diartikan bahwa peningkatan alokasi pengeluaran pendidikan tidak mengarah pada pengurangan ketimpangan pendapatan. Dengan melihat dari sisi efek jangka pendek dan jangka panjang, studi ini menemukan bahwa ketimpangan pendapatan menurun dengan meningkatnya pengeluaran pendidikan dalam jangka pendek tetapi meningkat dalam jangka panjang. Dengan demikian, efek penurunan ketimpangan pendapatan melalui peningkatan pengeluaran pendidikan di Indonesia tidak berkelanjutan dalam jangka panjang. Terlebih lagi, penelitian ini juga menemukan bahwa tingkat kemiskinan dan pertumbuhan ekonomi meningkatkan ketimpangan pendapatan, yang menyiratkan bahwa manfaat dari kenaikan ekonomi hanya diterima oleh masyarakat kelas menengah ke atas melainkan masyrakat miskin."

"[ABSTRAKPenelitian ini menyelidiki pengaruh perubahan kebijakan fiskal selamapelaksanaan desentralisasi fiskal terhadap ketimpangan di Indonesia. Denganmenggunakan data panel dari 27 provinsi selama periode 2001-2012, penelitianini menjelaskan dampak dari peraturan baru tentang desentralisasi fiskal terhadapketimpangan pengeluaran. Penelitian ini menggunakan koefisien Gini, Theil L,dan Theil T sebagai ukuran ketimpangan, sedangkan variabel independen meliputiindeks desentralisasi fiskal (FDA dan FDB), PDRB per kapita (pcGRDP) danPDRB per kapita kuadrat (pcGRDP kuadrat). Variabel independen PDRB perkapita dan PDRB per kapita kuadrat berfungsi sebagai variabel kontrol.Hasil regresi panel menunjukkan bahwa selama pelaksanaan Undang-Undang Nomor 25 tahun 1999 (2001-2004), desentralisasi fiskal berdampaknegatif pada ketimpangan. Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa desentralisasi fiskalmengakibatkan peningkatan ketimpangan pengeluaran. Semakin besardesentralisasi fiskal menyebabkan semakin besarnya ketimpangan pengeluaran.Perubahan undang-undang desentralisasi fiskal tahun 2004 menunjukkan bahwaketimpangan dapat dikurangi. Meskipun pengaruh desentralisasi fiskal padaketimpangan masih negatif setelah tahun 2004, besar dampaknya jauh lebih kecil.

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ABSTRACTThis study attempts to investigate the effect of change in fiscal regulationduring implementation of fiscal decentralization on inequality in Indonesia. Usinga provincial panel data set consisting of 27 provinces during 2001-2012 periods,this study explains the impact of new regulation on fiscal decentralization onexpenditure inequality. This study employs Gini coefficient, Theil L, and Theil Tas a measure of inequality, while independent variables include indices of fiscaldecentralization (FDA and FDB), per capita GRDP (pcGRDP) and per capitaGRDP squared (pcGRDP squared). Independent variables, pc GRDP and pcGRDPsquared serve as control variables.The panel regression results show that during the implementation of the lawNo.25/1999 (i.e., from 2001 to 2004), fiscal decentralization has a negative impacton inequality. In particular, this study finds that fiscal decentralization appears tohave increased expenditure inequality. Higher degree of fiscal decentralizationviiUniversitas Indonesiainduces larger expenditure inequality. However, the implementation of the revisedfiscal decentralization law in 2004 seems to have mitigated inequality. Though theeffect of fiscal decentralization on inequality is still negative after 2004, themagnitude of the effect is much smaller.;This study attempts to investigate the effect of change in fiscal regulationduring implementation of fiscal decentralization on inequality in Indonesia. Usinga provincial panel data set consisting of 27 provinces during 2001-2012 periods,this study explains the impact of new regulation on fiscal decentralization onexpenditure inequality. This study employs Gini coefficient, Theil L, and Theil Tas a measure of inequality, while independent variables include indices of fiscaldecentralization (FDA and FDB), per capita GRDP (pcGRDP) and per capitaGRDP squared (pcGRDP squared). Independent variables, pc GRDP and pcGRDPsquared serve as control variables.The panel regression results show that during the implementation of the lawNo.25/1999 (i.e., from 2001 to 2004), fiscal decentralization has a negative impacton inequality. In particular, this study finds that fiscal decentralization appears tohave increased expenditure inequality. Higher degree of fiscal decentralizationviiUniversitas Indonesiainduces larger expenditure inequality. However, the implementation of the revisedfiscal decentralization law in 2004 seems to have mitigated inequality. Though theeffect of fiscal decentralization on inequality is still negative after 2004, themagnitude of the effect is much smaller.;This study attempts to investigate the effect of change in fiscal regulationduring implementation of fiscal decentralization on inequality in Indonesia. Usinga provincial panel data set consisting of 27 provinces during 2001-2012 periods,this study explains the impact of new regulation on fiscal decentralization onexpenditure inequality. This study employs Gini coefficient, Theil L, and Theil Tas a measure of inequality, while independent variables include indices of fiscaldecentralization (FDA and FDB), per capita GRDP (pcGRDP) and per capitaGRDP squared (pcGRDP squared). Independent variables, pc GRDP and pcGRDPsquared serve as control variables.The panel regression results show that during the implementation of the lawNo.25/1999 (i.e., from 2001 to 2004), fiscal decentralization has a negative impacton inequality. In particular, this study finds that fiscal decentralization appears tohave increased expenditure inequality. Higher degree of fiscal decentralizationviiUniversitas Indonesiainduces larger expenditure inequality. However, the implementation of the revisedfiscal decentralization law in 2004 seems to have mitigated inequality. Though theeffect of fiscal decentralization on inequality is still negative after 2004, themagnitude of the effect is much smaller., This study attempts to investigate the effect of change in fiscal regulationduring implementation of fiscal decentralization on inequality in Indonesia. Usinga provincial panel data set consisting of 27 provinces during 2001-2012 periods,this study explains the impact of new regulation on fiscal decentralization onexpenditure inequality. This study employs Gini coefficient, Theil L, and Theil Tas a measure of inequality, while independent variables include indices of fiscaldecentralization (FDA and FDB), per capita GRDP (pcGRDP) and per capitaGRDP squared (pcGRDP squared). Independent variables, pc GRDP and pcGRDPsquared serve as control variables.The panel regression results show that during the implementation of the lawNo.25/1999 (i.e., from 2001 to 2004), fiscal decentralization has a negative impacton inequality. In particular, this study finds that fiscal decentralization appears tohave increased expenditure inequality. Higher degree of fiscal decentralizationviiUniversitas Indonesiainduces larger expenditure inequality. However, the implementation of the revisedfiscal decentralization law in 2004 seems to have mitigated inequality. Though theeffect of fiscal decentralization on inequality is still negative after 2004, themagnitude of the effect is much smaller.]"

"Ketimpangan pendapatan dan kemiskinan telah menjadi permasalahan utama dalam studi pembangunan sejak tahun 1970-an. Meskipun ada berbagai faktor yang secara teoritis terkait dengan insiden kemiskinan dan ketimpangan pendapatan, pilihan mengenai jenis dan struktur pengeluaran pemerintah sering dikutip sebagai salah satu faktor penentu penting. Namun, bukti ilmiah atas permasalahan ini masih belum bisa disimpulkan, dan penelitian atas kasus di Indonesia masih sangat sedikit. Penelitian ini mencoba untuk berkontribusi dengan memanfaatkan data panel 33 propinsi dari tahun 2005 sampai dengan 2017 untuk menguji pengaruh berbagai jenis pengeluaran pemerintah terhadap ketimpangan pendapatan dan kemiskinan di Indonesia. Dengan menggunakan fixed effect, random effect, dan Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SURE) sistem, penelitian ini menemukan bahwa bantuan sosial, subsidi dan pengeluaran hibah memiliki efek yang tidak signifikan dalam mengurangi ketimpangan pendapatan dan kemiskinan di Indonesia. Namun, bukti empiris menunjukkan bahwa pengeluaran infrastruktur memiliki korelasi negatif dengan ketimpangan pendapatan di daerah perkotaan (ketika menggunakan random effect model), dan daerah pedesaan (ketika menggunakan fixed effect model), keduanya signifikan secara statistik pada tingkat 5%. Selain itu, pengeluaran infrastruktur juga berkorelasi negatif dan signifikan dengan kemiskinan di Indonesia, dan dampaknya lebih signifikan di daerah pedesaan daripada perkotaan.

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The issues of income inequality and poverty have become key issues in development studies since the 1970s. Although there are various factors theoretically associated with the incidence of poverty and income inequality, choices regarding the types and structure of government expenditure are often quoted as one of the crucial determinants. However, the evidence is still inconclusive, and the research about these issues in the case of Indonesia is still minimum. This paper tries to contribute to the discussion by analysing a panel data set of 33 provinces from 2005 to 2017 to examine the effect of different types of government expenditure on income inequality and poverty in Indonesia. Using the fixed effect, random effect, and Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SURE) system, this paper finds that social aid, subsidy and grant expenditure have an insignificant effect on reducing income inequality and poverty in Indonesia. However, the empirical evidence suggests that infrastructure spending has a negative correlation with income inequality in urban areas (when using the random effect model), and rural areas (when using the fixed effect model), both are statistically significant at the 5% level. In addition, infrastructure expenditure is also negatively and significantly correlated with poverty in Indonesia, and the impact is more significant in rural than urban areas."

"Dengan menggunakan Survei Sosial Ekonomi Nasional Indonesia tahun 2013 studi ini ingin melihat ketimpangan dari perspektif perkawinan apakah perkawinan berdasarkan tingkat pendidikan ada serta apakah ada dampaknya terhadap ketimpangan pengeluaran di Indonesia Korelasi Kendall rsquos Tau digunakan untuk melihat kekuatan korelasi tingkat pendidikan suami dan istri Indeks Gini dibuat untuk melihat seberapa besar ketimpangan pengeluaran di Indonesia Dengan membandingkan kondisi nyata dan kontrafakta studi ini menemukan bahwa perkawinan berdasarkan tingkat pendidikan terjadi dan memiliki dampak terhadap membesarnya ketimpangan pengeluaran di Indonesia Studi ini juga menemukan bahwa partisipasi angkatan kerja status kerja kepemilikan anak dan lama kawin suatu pasangan secara signifikan membuat pengeluaran antar pasangan bervariasi dan menyebabkan memburuknya ketimpangan pengeluaran di Indonesia."

"Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh pengeluaran pendidikan oleh pemerintah daerah terhadap pengeluaran pendidikan oleh rumah tangga menurut kelompok pendapatan. Studi ini menggunakan data Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS) 2007 dan 2014 dan APBD kabupaten/kota. Hasil empiris dengan model tobit menunjukkan bahwa peningkatan pengeluaran pendidikan oleh pemerintah menurunkan pengeluaran pendidikan oleh rumah tangga. Menurut kelompok pendapatan, pengeluaran pendidikan oleh pemerintah signifikan mengurangi total pengeluaran pendidikan oleh rumah tangga di semua kelompok pendapatan. Menurut jenis pengeluaran, peningkatan pengeluaran pendidikan oleh pemerintah signifikan mengurangi pengeluaran iuran sekolah di semua kelompok pendapatan. Sementara itu, pengeluaran pendidikan pemerintah yang meningkat signifikan mengurangi biaya peralatan sekolah, transport dan kursus pada kelompok pendapatan rendah dan menengah dan tidak signifikan memengaruhi rumah tangga di kelompok pendapatan tinggi.

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This study aims to determine the effect of education spending by local governments on education expenditure by households according to income groups. This study uses data from Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS) 2007 and 2014 and local government budget (district/city). Empirical results from tobit model indicate that an increase in local government expenditure on education reduces household expenditure on education. According to income groups, education expenditure by the government significantly reduces total education expenditure by household in all income groups. By type of expenditure, an increase in education spending by the government significantly reduces school tuition spending in all income groups. Meanwhile, an increase in education spending by the governma on education significantly reduced the cost of school equipment, transport and courses in the low and middle income groups and did not significantly affect households in the high income group."

"Tesis ini membahas tentang pengaruh lansia dan pension coverage yang meliputi jaminan pensiun dan jaminan hari tua terhadap pengeluaran pendidikan anak di Indonesia. Jaminan pensiun selama ini dianggap dapat memberikan manfaat khususnya untuk para lansia di masa tua. Adanya jaminan pensiun juga diduga memengaruhi alokasi pengeluaran rumah tangga khususnya pada investasi pendidikan. Penelitian ini ingin menjawab pertanyaan apakah benar cakupan jaminan pensiun (pension coverage) dapat mempengaruhi pengeluaran pendidikan anak. Dengan menggunakan metode OLS pooled cross section diteliti hubungan antara variabel jaminan pensiun dan investasi pendidikan anak. Hasilnya menunjukkan adanya hubungan yang positif dan signifikan antara pension coverage dan pengeluaran pendidikan anak. Penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memberikan kontribusi bagi pemerintah terkait sosialisasi dan perluasan program jaminan pensiun sehingga dapat meningkatkan kesejahteraan anak dan kesejahteraan rumah tangga di masa mendatang.

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This thesis discusses the effect of older people and pension coverage, including pension and old age benefits, on children's education expenses in Indonesia. Pension guarantees have been considered to be able to provide benefits, especially for older people in their old age. The existence of a pension guarantee is also thought to affect the allocation of household spending, especially on education investment. This study wants to answer the question of whether pension coverage can indeed affect children's education expenses. The relationship between pension security and investment in children's education was investigated using the OLS pooled cross-section method. The results show a positive and significant relationship between pension coverage and children's education expenses. This research is expected to contribute to the government regarding socialization and expansion of the pension security program to improve children's and household welfare in the future."

"Penelitian ini meneliti dampak dari pengeluaran pendidikan pemerintah terhadap kesenjangan pengeluaran rumah tangga di Indonesia. Hal tersebut dilatarbelakangi adanya keterbatasan kemampuan keuangan pemerintah. Alokasi yang tepat khususnya pada sektor pendidikan diharapkan dapat mendorong pengurangan kemiskinan dan kesenjangan sosial. Berdasarkan penelitian menggunakan data level provinsi di Indonesia dengan periode 2003 sampai dengan 2011 dan menggunakan fixed effect model, peneliti menemukan bahwa kenaikan anggaran pendidikan samapai dengan 20% mampu untuk mengurangi Koefisien Gini sebesar 1,601. Oleh karena itu kebijakan ini mampu untuk mengurangi kesenjangan pengeluaran antar rumah tangga di Indonesia. Temuan lainnya, dampak desentralisasi pengelolaan dana pendidikan secara statistik tidak signifikan. Hal ini berarti bahwa baik dana pendidikan dikelola oleh pemerintah pusat maupun pemerintah daerah, dampak pengeluaran pendidikan pemerintah terhadap kesenajang pengeluaran ruamh tangga relatif sama.

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This study investigates the impact of government education spending on expenditure inequality in Indonesia. Since the government of Indonesia has limited resources to finance public sector, right budget allocation on public sector, particularly education is expected to encourage reducing poverty and inequalities. By investigating data across provinces in 2003-2011 using fixed effect model, this study finds that increase in the proportion of the education spending up to 20% of the government budget are able to reduce gini coefficient by 1.601. Therefore, this policy are able to reduce expenditure inequality among households in Indonesia. Another finding is that the impact of dezentralization of the education spending on expenditure inequality is statistically insignificant. It means that wether the manager of education funds is central governmnet or local government, the impact of education spending on expenditure inequality among households is relatively the same."

"Berdasarkan Survey Sosial Ekonomi Nasional SUSENAS, penelitian ini mencoba untuk menganalisa faktor ndash; faktor yang mempengaruhi ketiimpangan terhadap pengeluaran rumah tangga di sektor kesehatan dengan menggunakan metode dekomposisi ketimpangan: dekomposisi terhadap komponen ndash; komponen pengeluaran rumah tangga, dan dekomposisi terhadap sub ndash; grup populasi. Kami menemukan bahwa ketimpangan terhadap komponen ndash; komponen pengeluaran rumah tangga untuk non ndash; makanan lebih besar dibandingkan komponen pengeluaran rumah tangga untuk makanan. Di antara komponen ndash; komponen pengeluaran rumah tangga untuk non ndash; makanan, ketimpangan terhadap pengeluaran di sektor kesehatan sangatlah tinggi dan polanya cenderung stabil. Hal ini menandakan bahwa terdapat banyak rumah tangga yang masih belum mampu untuk mengakses fasilitas ndash; fasilitas kesehatan dan situasi tersebut tidak berubah selang periode penelitian. Lebih lanjut, disparitas ketimpangan di sektor kesehatan tersebut yang terjadi di antara wilayah ndash; wilayah peneltian sangatlah kecil, sehingga dapat dikatakan bahwa ketimpangan yang besar terhadap pengeluaran di sektor kesehatan terjadi di masing ndash; masing wilayah terutama pada daerah perkotaan. Sementara itu di antara rumah tangga yang tidak memiliki akses terhadap air minum yang berkualitas/layak terdapat banyak rumah tangga miskin yang tidak mampu untuk mengakses pelayanan kesehatan yang berkualitas. Terkait hal ndash; hal tersebut, para pembuat kebijakan kedepannya diharapkan dapat lebih fokus kepada ketimpangan yang terjadi di masing ndash; masing wilayah/provinsi terutama pada daerah perkotaan. Lebih lanjut, Pemerintah juga harus membangun fasilitas ndash; fasilitas kesehatan yang terjangkau untuk seluruh lapisan masyarakat, serta meningkatkan kualitas dan kuantitas tenaga medis yang bekerja di fasilitas ndash; fasilitas kesehatan tersebut.

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Based on the National Socioeconomic Survey, this study attempts to explore the factors of health expenditure inequality by using two inequality decomposition methods decomposition by expenditure components and decomposition by population sub groups. It is found that non food expenditure inequality is much higher than food expenditure inequality. Among non food expenditure inequalities, health expenditure inequality is very high and quite stable, suggesting that many households could not afford to pay for high quality health care services and this situation has not been improved. Health expenditure disparity between regions is very small, meaning that a very large health expenditure inequality exists within each region, particularly urban areas. Households who have access to qualified water have a much lower health expenditure inequality than those who have no or limited access, suggesting that among those who have no or limited access, there is a large number of very poor households who cannot afford to pay for decent health care services. Policy makers should focus more on health expenditure inequality within urban areas in each region. The government should establish more low cost health care centers, particularly in urban areas in each region and increase medical doctors who could work in these health care centers."

"Berdasarkan Survei Sosial Ekonomi Nasional (Susenas) dan sensus penduduk sejak 2010, penelitian ini menguji pengaruh keragaman etnis terhadap ketimpangan pengeluaran di Indonesia. Ini dicapai dengan menggunakan estimasi OLS menggunakan ethnic fractionalization index (efi) dan ethnic polarization index (epoi) sebagai proksi keanekaragaman etnis. Tanpa variabel kontrol, ethnic fractionalization index adalah positif dan signifikan dalam mempengaruhi ketimpangan pengeluaran di Indonesia. Tidak seperti ethnic fractionalization index, ethnic polarization index dan ketimpangan pengeluaran memiliki hubungan berbentuk U terbalik. Namun, pengaruh keragaman etnis kurang signifikan ketika variabel kontrol ditambahkan ke estimasi. Selain itu, efek keanekaragaman etnis kehilangan signifikansinya ketika memasukkan dummy wilayah ke dalam estimasi. Kami menemukan bahwa semua dummy wilayah secara signifikan mempengaruhi ketimpangan dan mengurangi efek keragaman etnis. Akhirnya, dimasukkannya interaksi antara proxy keragaman etnis dan dummy wilayah mengungkapkan hasil yang tidak terduga. Meskipun tidak signifikan, baik interaksi ethnic fractionalization index atau ethnic polarization index dengan dummy wilayah menunjukkan hubungan negatif.

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Based on the National Socio-Economic Survey (Susenas) and population census from 2010, this study examines the effect of ethnic diversity on expenditure inequality in Indonesia. This is achieved using the OLS estimation using ethnic fractionalization index (efi) and ethnic polarization index (epoi) as the proxy of ethnic diversity. Without the control variable, the ethnic fractionalization index is positive and significant in affecting expenditure inequality in Indonesia. Unlike the ethnic fractionalization index, the ethnic polarization index and expenditure inequality have an inverted U-shaped relationship. However, the effect of ethnic diversity is less significant when control variables are added to the estimation. Additionally, the effect of ethnic diversity loses its significance when incorporating regional dummies into the estimation. We found that all regional dummies significantly affect inequality and diminish the ethnic diversity effect. Finally, the inclusion of the interaction term between ethnic diversity proxy and regional dummies reveals an unexpected result. Though not significant, both interactions of the ethnic fractionalization index or the ethnic polarization index with regional dummies show a negative relationship."

"ABSTRAKPenelitian ini bertujuan mengetahui peran pengeluaran pemerintah (baik secara porsi maupun secara pengelolaan belanja di pemerintah) dan masyarakat terhadap pembangunan manusia dan dimensinya di Indonesia. Penelitian menggunakan data panel tingkat provinsi di Indonesia selama tahun 2008-2011, yang diestimasi menggunakan metode efek tetap dengan estimator Generalized Least Square.Hasil estimasi menunjukkan bahwa porsi belanja pendidikan dan kesehatan pemerintah kurang mempengaruhi secara positif pembangunan manusia. Tingkat birokrasi pendidikan dan tingkat pengambil kebijakan belanja kesehatan kurang mempengaruhi secara positif pembangunan manusia. Porsi konsumsi pendidikan rumah tangga mempengaruhi positif, sedangkan konsumsi kesehatan kurang mempengaruhi secara positif pembangunan manusia dan dimensinya di Indonesia.

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ABSTRACT

This study aims to determine the role of government spending (both in portion and in management in government spending) and households spending on human development and its dimensions in Indonesia. This study uses provincial panel data during 2008-2011 in Indonesia, which is estimated using fixed effects method with Generalized Least Square estimator.

The results showed the share of government?s education and health spending has less impact positively on human development. Bureaucracy?s level in education and level of health policy makers in government spending have positive effect on human development. Share of education?s consumption have positive impact, while health?s consumption have less impact on human development in Indonesia."