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"In the following I propose to survey research trends in the study of Japanese early modern history, in particular the history of Japanese foreign relations at the start of the early modern period, with a focus on the system of so-called “national seclusion” (sakoku). On an earlier occasion, in an article entitled “Development of Japanese: Studies on Sakoku (Closing the Country): A Survey “in this same Acia Asiatica (No. 22, 1972), I similarly reviewed currents in “national seclusion studies’ in Japan and research trends in the study of the history of Japanese foreign relations at the start of the early modern period with respect to research from the second half of the nineteenth century through to the late 1960’s. the present article may be regarded as a sequel to this earlier paper, and dealing chiefly with articles and books published by Japanese researches between 1070 and the early 1990’s and focusing primarily on the subject of the reexamination of “national seclusion” I have set out to summarize in my own way the currents and trends in Japanese research on the history of foreign relations during this period. The reader should note at the outset, however, that it has not been my intention to present an exhaustive review of every individual study pertaining to the subject at hand."

"In the following I propose to survey research trends in the study of Japanese early modern history, in particular the history of Japanese foreign relations at the start of the early modern period, with a focus on the system of so-called “national seclusion” (sakoku). On an earlier occasion, in an article entitled “Development of Japanese: Studies on Sakoku (Closing the Country): A Survey “in this same Acia Asiatica (No. 22, 1972), I similarly reviewed currents in “national seclusion studies’ in Japan and research trends in the study of the history of Japanese foreign relations at the start of the early modern period with respect to research from the second half of the nineteenth century through to the late 1960’s. the present article may be regarded as a sequel to this earlier paper, and dealing chiefly with articles and books published by Japanese researches between 1070 and the early 1990’s and focusing primarily on the subject of the reexamination of “national seclusion” I have set out to summarize in my own way the currents and trends in Japanese research on the history of foreign relations during this period. The reader should note at the outset, however, that it has not been my intention to present an exhaustive review of every individual study pertaining to the subject at hand."

"In the following I propose to survey research trends in the study of Japanese early modern history, in particular the history of Japanese foreign relations at the start of the early modern period, with a focus on the system of so-called “national seclusion” (sakoku). On an earlier occasion, in an article entitled “Development of Japanese: Studies on Sakoku (Closing the Country): A Survey “in this same Acia Asiatica (No. 22, 1972), I similarly reviewed currents in “national seclusion studies’ in Japan and research trends in the study of the history of Japanese foreign relations at the start of the early modern period with respect to research from the second half of the nineteenth century through to the late 1960’s. the present article may be regarded as a sequel to this earlier paper, and dealing chiefly with articles and books published by Japanese researches between 1070 and the early 1990’s and focusing primarily on the subject of the reexamination of “national seclusion” I have set out to summarize in my own way the currents and trends in Japanese research on the history of foreign relations during this period. The reader should note at the outset, however, that it has not been my intention to present an exhaustive review of every individual study pertaining to the subject at hand."

"In the following I propose to survey research trends in the study of Japanese early modern history, in particular the history of Japanese foreign relations at the start of the early modern period, with a focus on the system of so-called “national seclusion” (sakoku). On an earlier occasion, in an article entitled “Development of Japanese: Studies on Sakoku (Closing the Country): A Survey “in this same Acia Asiatica (No. 22, 1972), I similarly reviewed currents in “national seclusion studies’ in Japan and research trends in the study of the history of Japanese foreign relations at the start of the early modern period with respect to research from the second half of the nineteenth century through to the late 1960’s. the present article may be regarded as a sequel to this earlier paper, and dealing chiefly with articles and books published by Japanese researches between 1070 and the early 1990’s and focusing primarily on the subject of the reexamination of “national seclusion” I have set out to summarize in my own way the currents and trends in Japanese research on the history of foreign relations during this period. The reader should note at the outset, however, that it has not been my intention to present an exhaustive review of every individual study pertaining to the subject at hand."

"In the following I propose to survey research trends in the study of Japanese early modern history, in particular the history of Japanese foreign relations at the start of the early modern period, with a focus on the system of so-called “national seclusion” (sakoku). On an earlier occasion, in an article entitled “Development of Japanese: Studies on Sakoku (Closing the Country): A Survey “in this same Acia Asiatica (No. 22, 1972), I similarly reviewed currents in “national seclusion studies’ in Japan and research trends in the study of the history of Japanese foreign relations at the start of the early modern period with respect to research from the second half of the nineteenth century through to the late 1960’s. the present article may be regarded as a sequel to this earlier paper, and dealing chiefly with articles and books published by Japanese researches between 1070 and the early 1990’s and focusing primarily on the subject of the reexamination of “national seclusion” I have set out to summarize in my own way the currents and trends in Japanese research on the history of foreign relations during this period. The reader should note at the outset, however, that it has not been my intention to present an exhaustive review of every individual study pertaining to the subject at hand."

"In the following I propose to survey research trends in the study of Japanese early modern history, in particular the history of Japanese foreign relations at the start of the early modern period, with a focus on the system of so-called “national seclusion” (sakoku). On an earlier occasion, in an article entitled “Development of Japanese: Studies on Sakoku (Closing the Country): A Survey “in this same Acia Asiatica (No. 22, 1972), I similarly reviewed currents in “national seclusion studies’ in Japan and research trends in the study of the history of Japanese foreign relations at the start of the early modern period with respect to research from the second half of the nineteenth century through to the late 1960’s. the present article may be regarded as a sequel to this earlier paper, and dealing chiefly with articles and books published by Japanese researches between 1070 and the early 1990’s and focusing primarily on the subject of the reexamination of “national seclusion” I have set out to summarize in my own way the currents and trends in Japanese research on the history of foreign relations during this period. The reader should note at the outset, however, that it has not been my intention to present an exhaustive review of every individual study pertaining to the subject at hand."

"In the following I propose to survey research trends in the study of Japanese early modern history, in particular the history of Japanese foreign relations at the start of the early modern period, with a focus on the system of so-called “national seclusion” (sakoku). On an earlier occasion, in an article entitled “Development of Japanese: Studies on Sakoku (Closing the Country): A Survey “in this same Acia Asiatica (No. 22, 1972), I similarly reviewed currents in “national seclusion studies’ in Japan and research trends in the study of the history of Japanese foreign relations at the start of the early modern period with respect to research from the second half of the nineteenth century through to the late 1960’s. the present article may be regarded as a sequel to this earlier paper, and dealing chiefly with articles and books published by Japanese researches between 1070 and the early 1990’s and focusing primarily on the subject of the reexamination of “national seclusion” I have set out to summarize in my own way the currents and trends in Japanese research on the history of foreign relations during this period. The reader should note at the outset, however, that it has not been my intention to present an exhaustive review of every individual study pertaining to the subject at hand."

"Tahun 2000 menandai hadirnya agenda pengentasan kemiskinan global dengan Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper PRSPs sebagai upaya untuk mengatasi krisis legitimasi neoliberal. Meskipun konsensus yang ada menggeser prioritas bantuan untuk sektor sosial, Jepang masih mengkonsentrasikan bantuannya pada sektor infrastruktur ekonomi dan produksi. Anomali ini terus berlanjut meskipun terdapat berbagai kritik mengenai ketidakefektifan bantuan infrastruktur untuk pengentasan kemiskinan. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat resistansi Jepang terhadap perubahan institusional bantuan luar negerinya. Dengan menggunakan kerangka path dependence, kontinuitas model bantuan Jepang dijelaskan dengan tiga faktor. Pertama adalah legitimasi gagasan pembangunan yang diakui oleh negara resipien dan masyarakat domestik, sehingga terefleksikan dalam program pengentasan kemiskinan di berbagai wilayah yang menyasar pada pembangunan infrastruktur pedesaan. Kedua adalah potensi keuntungan yang bisa didapatkan dari bantuan infrastruktur, yaitu peningkatan ekspor barang dan jasa serta destinasi investasi bagi perusahaan Jepang. Ketiga adalah inersia birokrasi dalam pembuatan kebijakannya, yang menempatkan MOFA dan METI pada posisi signifikan untuk membawa kepentingan nasional sedangkan NGO pada posisi subordinat yang sejatinya merupakan penggagas norma-norma altruisme. Namun, pada kawasan yang berbeda, terdapat derajat determinan berbeda pula dalam kontinuitas model tersebut. Pada wilayah Asia, pinjaman yen berjumlah besar untuk pembangunan infrastruktur cenderung untuk diberikan bagi negara-negara dengan tingkat pendapatan menengah. Hal ini berbeda dari negara terbelakang di Asia seperti CLMV dan negara berutang besar di Afrika yang cenderung menerima hibah karena kurangnya kredibilitas pembayaran utang. Temuan dalam penelitian ini menjadi suatu refleksi mengenai gagasan pengentasan kemiskinan bagi kajian bantuan luar negeri yang selama ini didominasi oleh tema-tema strategis donor.

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The year 2000 marked the emergence of global poverty alleviation agenda through Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers PRSPs as an effort to solve neoliberal rsquo s legitimacy crisis. While then consensus shifted aid priority for social sector, Japan still concentrated its aid around economic infrastructure and production sector. This anomaly continues in spite of mounting criticism about the ineffective infrastructure aid to alleviate poverty. This shows Japan rsquo s resistance toward the aid rsquo s institutional change. Using the framework of path dependence, the continuity of Japan rsquo s aid model is explained through three factos. First is legitimacy of development ideas recognized by recipient countries and domestic society thus reflected on the poverty alleviation programs in various regions which targets rural infrastructure development. Second is potential gains from infrastructure aid which are increase of export of commodity and service, as well as investment destination for Japanese private sectors. Third is bureaucracy inertia on the aid policymaking, which places MOFA and METI on significant position to bring up national interest while NGOs on the subordinate, when they can promote altruistic norms. However, different regions also have different degree of determinant within the continued model. In Asia region, big amount of yen loans for infrastructure development is given to middle income countries. This is different from Asia rsquo s least developing such as the CLMV and highly indebted African countries that tend to receive high amount of grants due to less credibility of debt repayment. This research findings becomes a reflection of poverty alleviation ideas for foreign aid studies that has been dominated by donors rsquo strategic themes."