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"International trade is the life-blood of the countries in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Faced with several global trade issues the ASEAN countries individually and collectively pursue a multilateral approach by actively participating in the current Uruguay Round of GATT. The seven studies in this volume assess the strengths and weaknesses of international trading."

"Studies assessing the link between trade liberalization, poverty and equity come up with datatable result. The effect of open markets on poverty alleviation is usually divisive between pros (Anderson, Jha, et.al dan Bhattasali et al) and cons (Coller and Dollar,Twyford,Medeley and abbotts),while effect on equity is more conclusive...."

"Forum organisasi perdagangan dunia atau World Trade Organization (WTO) dalam melakukan perundingan perdagangan multilateral belum mencapai kesepakaran bersama di antara negara-negara anggota karena adanya kepentingan-kepentingan masing-masing anggota. Hal ini menyebabkan negara-negara di dunia berupaya untuk mengadakan perdagangan bebas baik secara bilateral maupun di antara kawasan. Seperti halnya yang telah dilakukan oleh kawasan kelompok negara-negara Asia Tenggara atau ASEAN dengan perjanjian perdagangan ASEAN Free Trade Area QIFTA) yang menggunakan skema Common Efecrive Preferential Tarif (CEPD sebagai mekanisme untuk menuju terwujudnya AFTA.Dengan telah berlakunya perdagangan bebas di kawasan ASEAN melalui AFT A menjadikan negara-negara di Asia tertarik untuk menjalin kerjasama dalam bentuk perjanjian perdagangan bebas seperti halnya yang telah disepakati antara ASEAN dengan Cina (ASEAN-China Free Trade Area), dan sampai saat ini dalam taraf negosiasi maupun penjajakan antara ASEAN dengan mitra wicara lainnya seperti Jepang, Korea dan India. Tidak terkecuali sebagai negara tetangga terdekat kawasan Asia Tenggara yaitu Australia dan New Zealand telah menyepakati dalam jangka waktu dua tahun ke depan yaitu sampai tahun 2007 untuk melakukan perundingan guna mewujudkan pembentukan ASEAN- Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Area (ASEAN-ANZ FTA).Mencermati perkeiribangan yang terjadi dalam pembentukan ASEAN-ANZ FTA, menjadi perhatian untuk meninjau dalam perspektif kebijakan perdagangan bilateral Indonesia-Australia. Indonesia secara geografis adalah sebagai negara tetangga terdekat dengan Australia, karena itu Australia tidak bisa lepas dari eksistensi Indonesia baik kepentingan geopolitik maupun geostrategi. Melihat keadaan ini, Indonesia dapat memanfaatkan hubungan bilateral dengan Australia guna meningkatkan pertumbuhan perekonomian dalam negeri sebagai upaya mencari alternatif lain yang lebih bagus.Dalam perpektif kebijakan perdagangan bilateral Indonesia-Australia diuraikan tentang kebiiakan berdagangan yang ada di Australia, hal ini dapat dijadikan gambaran bagi pemerintah Indonesia dalam merumuskan kebijakan perdagangan bilateral dengan Australia. Untuk memahami mengenai kebijakan perdagangan intemasional ini digunakan teori perdagangan internasional yaitu integrasi ekonomi dan kebijakan yang diacu adalah formulasi kebijakan yaitu sebagai rekomendasi untuk merumuskan kebijakan yang akan datang.Metode yang digunakan untuk meneliti kebijakan perdagangan bilateral Indonesia-Australia adalah metode analisis deskriptif. Untuk mendukung analisis, digunakan data primer berupa wawancara dengan para pakar perdagangan intemasional dan data sekunder bempa data eicspor dan impor melalui keoenderungan yang teijadi. Data tersebut diperoleh dari terbitan dan publikasi dari Sekretariat ASEAN, Departemen Perdagangan, Badan Statistik dan sumber-sumber lainnya. Dari hasil pengolahan data ekspor-impor tersebut diperoleh gambaran trend perdagangan yang menunjukan positip mengindikasikan berpotensi memasuki pasar Australia. Dari hasil analisis deskriptif menunjukkan bahwa kebijakan perdagangan Australia sudah lebih maju dari Indonesia dan negara-negara ASEAN lainnya. Australia rnenerapkan standar perdagangan yang baku dan diterapkan dengan ketat untuk melindungi kepentingan dalam negeri. Tarif yang diberlakukan di Australia sebagian besar sudah 0%, namun Indonesia rnasih kesulitan untuk memasuki pasar Australia karena penerapan standar yang ketat.Dari perspektif kebijakan perdagangan Indonesia dan Australia dapat disimpulkan bahwa pembentukan ASEAN-ANZ FTA dapat dimanfaatkan Indonesia khususnya bilateral dengan Australia dalam kerjasama ekonomi guna meningkatkan perdagangan barang, investasi dan jasa-jasa.Pembentukan ASEAN-ANZ hams dapat dimanfaatkan Indonesia semaksimal mungkin, untuk itu perlu adanya studi yang lebih komprehensif agar dapat memaksimalkan keuntungan dan meminimalkan kerugian yang akan ditimbulkan kemudian. Terutama dalam menghadapi persaingan dengan sesama negara anggota ASEAN seperti halnya Thailand yang sudah terlebih dahulu melakukan perdagangan bebas dengan Australia.

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World Trade Organization forum in negotiating the multilateral trade has not reached joint agreement between the member countries due to the interest of themselves. It makes them establish bilateral or regional free trade basis. As already established by those in South East Asia or ASEAN namely by ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFT A) agreement using the Common Effective Preferential Tariff (CEPT) scheme as the mechanism to realize AFT A.

The free trade in ASEAN region through AFTA make ASEAN countries desire to make cooperation in terms of tree trade agreement as already agreed by ASEAN and China (ASEAN-China Free Trade Area), and they are now negotiating and probing it with their partner such as Japan, Korea and India. Besides, the nearest neighboring countries such as Australia and New Zealand have made agreement in two years to come namely through 2007 for negotiation to realize the establishment of Australia - New Zealand Free Trade Area (ASEAN-ANZ FTA).

Taking into account the progress in the establishment of ASEAN ANZ FTA, it is necessary to make perspective review on Indonesia-Australia bilateral trade policy. Geographically Indonesia is the nearest country to Australia then the latter cannot be separated from the existence of Indonesia both geopolitically and geostrategically. Seeing this, Indonesia can utilize the bilateral relationship to it to improve the domestic economic growth as an effort to seek for other better alternatives.

The perspective of Indonesia-Australia bilateral trade policy elaborates the policy on trade in Australia which can be made as an illustration for the government of Indonesia to formulate the bilateral trade policy with it. In order to understand the international trade policy, the theory of international trade is used namely the economic integration and the policy being used is the policy fomrulation as the recommendation to formulate the future policy.

The method used to make the research in bilateral trade policy of Indonesia-Australia is the descriptive analytical method. To support the analysis, the primary data is used namely interview with the experts on intemational trade and secondary data namely export and import data through the existing trend. The data is issued and publicized by the Secretariat of ASEAN, Ministry of Trade, Statistic Bureau and other sources. The export import data processing generates the trend of trade indicating the potency to penetrate the Australia market The descriptive analysis indicates that the Australia trade policy is more advanced than that of Indonesia and other ASEAN countries Australia strictly applies the standard trade to protect the domestic interest. Most of the tariff applied there is 0% but it is still difficult for Indonesia to penetrate it due to the strict standard.

From the perspective of trade policy of Indonesia and Australia, it can be concluded that Indonesia can utilize the establishment of ASEAN ANZ FTA especially with Australia namely in economic cooperation to improve the trade of goods, investment and services.

Indonesia should utilize to the best possible degree the establishment of ASEAN-ANZ, therefore it is necessary to make a more comprehensive study for maximum profit and minimum loss in the future, especially in encountering the competition among ASEAN countries such as Thailand which already makes free trade with Australia."

"[ABSTRAKSebagai negara maju dan anggota OECD, Australia merupakan negara yangsangat aktif berkontribusi dalam pembangunan internasional dan pemberantasankemiskinan melalui pemberian ODA (Official Development Assistance). Dalamrangka mengakselerasi tujuan ODA tersebut, Australia mengadopsi danmengintegrasikan kebijakan Aid for Trade (AfT) yang secara internasionaldiluncurkan pada WTO Hongkong Declaration 2005 kedalam kebijakan bantuanluar negerinya pada tahun 2006. Kebijakan ini diambil dengan prinsip bahwanegara maju dapat membantu negara berkembang keluar dari kemiskinan denganmeningkatkan kapasitasnya dalam perdagangan internasional. Berbasis hal ini,sejak 2006, Australia mengimplementasikan kebijakan AfT dengan fokus regionaldi negara-negara ASEAN melalui bantuan infrastruktur, teknis, dan peningkatankapasitas dengan inisiatif Greater Mekong Subregion Trade and TransportFacilitation (GMS TTF), ASEAN Australia Development CooperationPartnership Phase II (AADCP II), dan ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand FreeTrade Agreement Economic Cooperation Support Program (AAZNFTA ECSP).Berdasarkan hal ini, bila kebijakan AfT Australia ditujukan untuk membantunegara berkembang keluar dari kemiskinan, fokus regional Australia dalamkebijakannya tersebut dinilai timpang dengan kenyataan problematika kemiskinanyang lebih besar terjadi di kawasan lain seperti Afrika. Lebih daripada itu, jikadinilai dari aspek perdagangan internasional, tidak semua negara ASEANmerupakan mitra utama perdagangan dua arahnya. Hal ini menimbulkanpertanyaan mengapa ASEAN menjadi fokus dalam kebijakan AfT Australia ini.Penelitian ini ditujukan untuk menjawab pertanyaan tersebut dengan menilaiaspek kepentingan Australia dalam kebijakan luar negerinya terhadap ASEANdengan kerangka konsep geoekonomi. Dalam pembahasannya, metode kualitatifakan digunakan untuk menjelaskan kepentingan geoekonomi Australia dalamkebijakan AfT-nya di ASEAN (periode 2006-2014). Analisis kepentingangeoekonomi Australia ini kemudian didasarkan pada tiga hal, yakni: 1)konektivitas perdagangan internasional Australia lintas kawasan, dimana akanmembahas kepentingan Australia atas jalur perdagangan strategis di ASEAN yangmenghubungkannya kepada mitra dagang utamanya; 2) posisi Australia dalamarsitektur ekonomi regional yang akan mengkaji keterlibatan Australia dalamproses pembentukan dan pemanfaatan perjanjian perdagangan bebas baik bilateralmaupun regional, dimana kebijakan AfT Australia sebagai katalis dalam usahatersebut; dan 3) potensi ekonomi ASEAN bagi Australia di abad Asia denganpenekanan pada potensi demografi ASEAN dan relasi investasi asing langsung(Foreign Direct Investment/FDI) antara kedua pihak.

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ABSTRACT Australia, as developed country and member of OECD, is a country whichactively contributes to international development and poverty eradication effortsvia providing ODA (Official Development Assistance). In order to expedite thegoal of its ODA, Australia adopts and integrates the Aid for Trade (AfT) policywhich was internationally lauched at the WTO Hongkong Declaration 2005 to itsaid policy in 2006. This policy was adopted with the principle of which developedcountries could assist developing countries to leave poverty by increasing theircapacity in international trade. Based on this, since 2006, Australia has beenimplementing AfT policy with regional focus towards ASEAN countries throughinfrastructure and technical assistance, as well as capacity building with theinitiatives of Greater Mekong Subregion Trade and Transport Facilitation (GMSTTF), ASEAN Australia Development Cooperation Partnership Phase II (AADCPII), and ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Agreement EconomicCooperation Support Program (AAZNFTA ECSP). In regards of this policy, ifAustralia’s AfT policy is directed to assist developing country to leave outpoverty, the regional focus of Australia is considered to be inappropriatepertaining to the fact that the problem of poverty is bigger in another region, suchas in Africa. Moreover, if it is considered from international trade aspect, it is notall of ASEAN countries which is the main two-way trading partner of Australia.This matter then rises question why ASEAN become the focus in Australia’s AfTpolicy.This research is adressed to answer that question by considering the aspectof Australia’s interest in its foreign policy towards ASEAN with the conceptualframework of geoeconomics. Inside of explanation, the qualitative methode wouldbe used to explain Australia’s geoeconomic interest in AfT policy in ASEAN(period of 2006-2014). The analysis of geoeconomic interest would then beestablished upon three things, which are: 1) the connectivity of Australia’sinternational trade across the region, which would explain Australia’s interestupon strategic trade pathways in ASEAN which connect Australia to its maintrade partner; 2) Australia’s position in the regional economic architecture, whichwould further analyze Australia’s engagement in the process of establishing andutilizing free trade agreement bilaterally an regionally by which the AfT policyplays a role as catalyst towards those efforts; and 3) the ASEAN economicpotential for Australia in the Asian century with the emphasis on demographicpotential of ASEAN as well as foreign direct investment (FDI) relation on bothparties., Australia, as developed country and member of OECD, is a country whichactively contributes to international development and poverty eradication effortsvia providing ODA (Official Development Assistance). In order to expedite thegoal of its ODA, Australia adopts and integrates the Aid for Trade (AfT) policywhich was internationally lauched at the WTO Hongkong Declaration 2005 to itsaid policy in 2006. This policy was adopted with the principle of which developedcountries could assist developing countries to leave poverty by increasing theircapacity in international trade. Based on this, since 2006, Australia has beenimplementing AfT policy with regional focus towards ASEAN countries throughinfrastructure and technical assistance, as well as capacity building with theinitiatives of Greater Mekong Subregion Trade and Transport Facilitation (GMSTTF), ASEAN Australia Development Cooperation Partnership Phase II (AADCPII), and ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Agreement EconomicCooperation Support Program (AAZNFTA ECSP). In regards of this policy, ifAustralia’s AfT policy is directed to assist developing country to leave outpoverty, the regional focus of Australia is considered to be inappropriatepertaining to the fact that the problem of poverty is bigger in another region, suchas in Africa. Moreover, if it is considered from international trade aspect, it is notall of ASEAN countries which is the main two-way trading partner of Australia.This matter then rises question why ASEAN become the focus in Australia’s AfTpolicy.This research is adressed to answer that question by considering the aspectof Australia’s interest in its foreign policy towards ASEAN with the conceptualframework of geoeconomics. Inside of explanation, the qualitative methode wouldbe used to explain Australia’s geoeconomic interest in AfT policy in ASEAN(period of 2006-2014). The analysis of geoeconomic interest would then beestablished upon three things, which are: 1) the connectivity of Australia’sinternational trade across the region, which would explain Australia’s interestupon strategic trade pathways in ASEAN which connect Australia to its maintrade partner; 2) Australia’s position in the regional economic architecture, whichwould further analyze Australia’s engagement in the process of establishing andutilizing free trade agreement bilaterally an regionally by which the AfT policyplays a role as catalyst towards those efforts; and 3) the ASEAN economicpotential for Australia in the Asian century with the emphasis on demographicpotential of ASEAN as well as foreign direct investment (FDI) relation on bothparties.]"

"Mengapa pemerintah Indonesia di bawah Presiden Megawati menandatangani ASEAN-China Free Trade Agreement (ACFTA) pada tahun 2002? Penelitian ini berusaha untuk menjawab pertanyaan tersebut dengan melihat relasi kuasa yang terjadi antara bisnis dan negara dalam proses formulasi ACFTA. Untuk melakukan hal tersebut, penelitian ini menggunakan kerangka teoretis yang dikembangkan oleh Storm C. Thacker yang memperhitungkan kerentanan, kepentingan dan institusi, serta inisiatif negara sebagaimana leverage, strategi, dan komposisi internal bisnis. Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa meskipun di satu sisi ACFTA menguntungkan bisnis besar yang mengekspor komoditas mereka ke China, kebijakan ini membahayakan industri kecil dan menengah yang bersaing secara langsung dengan komoditas yang diimpor dari China. Distribusi pendapatan yang tidak merata ini menyebabkan bisnis terbelah menjadi dua kelompok: mereka yang mendukung dan mereka yang menolak ACFTA. Sementara itu, di sisi negara, pembelahan secara praktis tidak terjadi, karena dua kepentingan yang ada di dalam negara, kelompok teknokrat dan kepentingan bisnis, mempunyai agenda yang sama di dalam ACFTA. Adalah simpulan utama dari penelitian ini bahwa koalisi antara bisnis besar dan negara lah yang secara efektif telah menentukan sikap resmi Indonesia terhadap ACFTA.

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Why did Indonesian government under Megawati’s presidency sign the ASEAN-China Free Trade Agreement (ACFTA) in 2002? This research attempts to anwer that question by looking at the underlying power relations between the state and businesses during ACFTA formulation process. In doing so, this research employs a theoretical framework developed by Storm C. Thacker which takes into account vulnerabilities, institutions and interests, and initiatives of the state as well as businesses’ leverages, strategies, and their internal makeup. The research finds that while ACFTA benefited Indonesian big businesses which exported their commodities to China, it harmed small and medium businesses who competed directly with commodities imported from China. This uneven income distribution consequently splited businesses into two divisions; those who supported and those who opposed ACFTA. Meanwhile, on the state’s side, the division was virtually nonexistent as the two main interests within the state, the technocrats and the business interest, had a converging agenda in ACFTA. It is the main conclusion of this research that this powerful state-big businesses coalition that had effectively determined Indonesia’s formal stance toward ACFTA."