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"This article distills the economic and current significance contained in the political economy of J.R. Commons. It compares descriptions of his three main works that discuss “sovereignty”: A Sociological View of Sovereignty (SVS), Legal Foundations of Capitalism (LFC), and Institutional Economics (IE). Through this comparison, we find that the role of sovereignty in his theory changed dramatically. First, in the period from SVS (1899–1900) to LFC (1924), the theory of sovereignty changes significantly from the standpoint of natural rights, which imply permanence of privileged customs, to “pragmatic philosophy” of the courts, in which laws are relevant to customs at certain times and places. Second, from the manuscripts of IE (1927–1928), sovereignty is defined as comprising part principles, which relate to each other and make up the whole principle, willingness. In other words, Commons views sovereignty as one perspective, which in turn has a high capability of explaining the socioeconomic system. Additional descriptions of IE (1934) derived from its original manuscripts repeatedly emphasize the “power” of economic concerns that are equal to or exceed the power of the state, as well as the importance of the “function” of sovereignty in pragmatic investigations of economic disputes. We distill the economic and current significance of IE. First, the value theory that constructs values institutionally and collectively starts from an analysis of sovereignty and joint evaluations. Second, sovereignty cannot be separated from an analysis of economic transactions. Third, this paper concretely shows elements of a “deliberate space” in which sovereignty and economic interests act in concert"

"Penelitian yang ada sebelumnya tidak membandingkan kasus existing dengan kasus yang pernah terjadi sebelumnya pun tidak mengembalikan norma hukum internasional yang ada kearah konsepsi dasar dari peraturan itu sendiri. Oleh karena itu menjadi suatu langkah substantial apabila dilakukan perbandingan guna memperoleh rekomendasi teknis sekaligus menghubungkan penerapan konsep dasar dengan aturan normatif dari hukum internasional. Secara historis larangan pernah diterapkan beberapa negara seperti Afrika Selatan, India, dan China pernah menerapkan hambatan perdagangan. China bahkan digugat oleh Uni Eropa, Amerika Serikat dan Jepang karena memberlakukan larangan kuota kuantitatif terhadap tanah jarang, wolfram dan molibdenum. China menggunakan dasar asas permanent sovereignty over natural resources yang termaktub dalam pasal XX GATT 1994 sebagai defense strategy. Pasal XX GATT 1994 dapat mengecualikan tindakan yang mendistorsi laju perdagangan dengan syarat dilakukan demi keberlangsungan lingkungan hidup dan konservasi energi tak terbarukan. Akan tetapi China gagal menunjukan adanya hubungan antara larangan kuota kuantitatif yang diberlakukan dengan penurunan laju produksi mineral untuk menjamin keberlangsungan lingkungan hidup dan menjaga agar energi tak terbarukan digunakan berlebihan. Indonesia memberlakukan larangan ekspor nikel dengan alasan cadangan nikel ore Indonesia hanya mampu menopang kebutuhan smelter nikel untuk 7 tahun berikutnya dan akan memperoleh tambahan penerimaan sekitar Rp 250 Triliun, meningkatkan value added sekitar Rp 500 Triliun, meningkatkan pendapatan pekerja sekitar Rp 150 Triliun. Namun larangan ekspor nikel ore dituduh memicu kelangkaan bahan baku bagi industri stainless steel eropa yang semula mampu membukukan keuntungan 20 Miliar Euro menurun hingga 60% dan berujung pada pemutusan hubungan kerja terhadap 1000 pekerja. Indonesia diprediksi akan menggunakan asas permanent sovereignty over natural resources sebagai defense strategy. kali ini Indonesia dituntut bercermin dari kasus China untuk dapat membuktikan bahwa larangan ekspor nikel berbanding lurus dengan penurunan laju produksi sehingga tujuan untuk menjaga lingkungan hidup dan konservasi energi tak terbarukan terlaksana.

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Previous research does not compare existing cases with cases that have occurred before nor does it return existing international legal norms to the basic conception of the regulation itself. Therefore, it becomes a substantial step if a comparison is made to obtain technical recommendations while at the same time linking the application of basic concepts to the normative rules of international law. Historically, several countries, such as South Africa, India, and China, have implemented trade barriers. China has even been sued by the European Union, the United States and Japan for imposing a quantitative quota ban on rare earths, tungsten and molybdenum. China uses the principle of permanent sovereignty over natural resources as stated in Article XX of the GATT 1994 as a defense strategy. Article XX of the GATT 1994 can exclude actions that distort the pace of trade on the condition that they are carried out for the sake of environmental sustainability and conservation of non-renewable energy. However, China has failed to demonstrate a link between the quantitative quota prohibition and a reduction in the rate of mineral production to ensure environmental sustainability and keep non-renewable energy from being overused. Indonesia imposed a ban on nickel exports on the grounds that Indonesia's nickel ore reserves are only able to support the need for nickel smelters for the next 7 years and will receive an additional revenue of around Rp 250 trillion, increase the value added of around Rp 500 trillion, increase the income of workers by around Rp 150 trillion. However, the ban on nickel ore exports is accused of triggering a shortage of raw materials for the European stainlesssteel industry, which was originally able to record a profit of 20 billion euros, decreased to 60% and resulted in the termination of 1000 workers. Indonesia is predicted to use the principle of permanent sovereignty over natural resources as a defense strategy. Indonesia is required to reflect on the case of China to be able to prove that the ban on nickel exports is directly proportional to the decline in production rates so that the objectives of protecting the environment and conserving non-renewable energy are realized.

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"ABSTRAKPenelitian ini membahas konsep security dan defence dalam studi ketahanan nasional yang kemudian menganalisis ketahanan politik dan ketahanan ekonomi pada krisis kesehatan pandemi Covid-19 agar menjadi masukan dalam RUU Kamnas untuk dapat disahkan di DPR untuk menciptakan keamanan dan pertahanan negara. Penelitian ini bertujuan menjelaskan bentuk-bentuk ancaman kontemporer terkait security dan defence, serta persamaan dan perbedaannya.Metode penelitian ini menggunakan desain penelitian kualitatif deskriptif. Teknik pengumpulan data penelitian ini dilakukan melalui wawancara dan studi kepustakaan. Informan yang diwawancarai sebanyak 2 orang pejabat setingkat Eselon III dari Kementerian Pertahanan Republik Indonesia.Hasil analisis dari penelitian ini adalah bentuk ancaman kontemporer yang terjadi di Indonesia adalah ancaman di perbatasan yang mempengaruhi keutuhan wilayah, ancaman separatisme dari KKB di Papua serta beberapa bencana alam yang memakan korban jiwa, dan saat ini sedang terjadi pandemi Covid-19. Persamaan konsep security dan defence dapat dilihat dari regulasi dan konsepnya. Sedangkan perbedaannya dapat dilihat dari kelembagaan, konstitusi, dan sumber ancaman. Pada analisis ketahanan politik dan ketahanan ekonomi dalam menghadapi ancaman krisis kesehatan pandemi yang berimbas pada sektor lain baik politik, ekonomi, dan keamanan. Dampak yang paling dirasakan adalah banyaknya pasien yang meninggal dunia, menurunnya pertumbuhan ekonomi, dan tingginya jumlah pengangguran. Belum sinerginya pemerintah pusat dengan daerah serta tumpang tindihnya kewenangan dalam penyelesaian masalah menyebabkan makin bertambahnya korban pandemi. Oleh karena itu diperlukan regulasi kebijakan keamanan nasional yang mengatur tentang wewenang dan tanggung jawab serta koordinasi antar lembaga dalam penyelesaian pandemi ini.

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ABSTRACTThis research discusses the concepts of security and defence in a national resilience study which then analyzes political resilience and economic resilience in the Covid-19 pandemic health crisis so that it becomes an input in the National Security Draft to be passed in the Parliament to create national security and defence. This study aims to explain the forms of contemporary threats related to security and defence, as well as their similarities and differences.This research method uses descriptive qualitative research design. The research data collection technique was carried out through interviews and literature study. Informants who were interviewed were 2 echelon III officials from the Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Indonesia.The results of the analysis of this research are the forms of contemporary threats that occur in Indonesia are threats at the border that affect the territorial integrity, the threat of separatism from the KKB in Papua and several natural disasters that take lives, and currently the Covid-19 pandemic is happening. The similarities between the concepts of security and defence can be seen from the regulations and concepts. While the difference can be seen from the institutional, constitutional, and source of threats. In the analysis of political resilience and economic resilience in the face of the threat of a pandemic health crisis which impacted on other sectors of politics, economy and security. The most pronounced impact is the number of patients who died, declining economic growth, and high unemployment. The lack of synergy between the central government and the regions and overlapping authority in solving problems has led to an increase in pandemic casualties. Therefore, national security policy regulation is needed that regulates the authority and responsibility and coordination between institutions in resolving this pandemic."

"[ABSTRAKPengaruh berlimpahnya sumber daya alam terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi telah lama dipelajari dalam berbagai studi, di mana sebagian besar hasil dari studi-studi tersebut menunjukan bahwa kelimpahan ini mempengaruhi secara negatif terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi. Sebagian besar studi tersebut dilakukan pada tingkat lintas negara. Tesis ini mencoba mencari tahu dampak dari kelimpahan sumber daya alam tersebut terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi pada tingkat lokal Indonesia. Dengan menggunakan data tingkat provinsi dari tahun 2004 sampai 2013 dan metode analisa data panel, tesis ini menemukan bahwa berlimpahnya sumber daya alam memiliki pengaruh negatif yang siknifikan terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi di Indonesia. Tesis ini juga mendapati bahwa pendapatan, inflasi, dan kriminal berpotensi menjadi saluran transmisi, di mana sumber daya alam di Indonesia cenderung meningkatkan pendapatan, namun menurunkan inflasi dan kriminal.

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ABSTRACTThe effect of natural resource abundance on economic growth has long been discussed in many studies and most of them show that resource abundance negatively affects growth However most of these studies are conducted at a cross country level This paper tries to find out the impact of resource abundance on economic growth at a local level of Indonesia By employing data at provincial level from 2004 until 2013 and using panel data analysis this paper finds that in average natural resource abundance has a significant negative impact on economic growth in Indonesia This paper also discovers that income inflation and crime are the possible transmission channels where natural resource of mining in Indonesia tends to increase income but lower inflation and crime daya alam di Indonesia cenderung meningkatkan pendapatan namun menurunkan inflasi dan kriminal ;The effect of natural resource abundance on economic growth has long been discussed in many studies and most of them show that resource abundance negatively affects growth However most of these studies are conducted at a cross country level This paper tries to find out the impact of resource abundance on economic growth at a local level of Indonesia By employing data at provincial level from 2004 until 2013 and using panel data analysis this paper finds that in average natural resource abundance has a significant negative impact on economic growth in Indonesia This paper also discovers that income inflation and crime are the possible transmission channels where natural resource of mining in Indonesia tends to increase income but lower inflation and crime., The effect of natural resource abundance on economic growth has long been discussed in many studies and most of them show that resource abundance negatively affects growth However most of these studies are conducted at a cross country level This paper tries to find out the impact of resource abundance on economic growth at a local level of Indonesia By employing data at provincial level from 2004 until 2013 and using panel data analysis this paper finds that in average natural resource abundance has a significant negative impact on economic growth in Indonesia This paper also discovers that income inflation and crime are the possible transmission channels where natural resource of mining in Indonesia tends to increase income but lower inflation and crime daya alam di Indonesia cenderung meningkatkan pendapatan namun menurunkan inflasi dan kriminal ]"

"Penelitian ini menganalisis pengaruh keberlimpahan sumber daya terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi dan juga melihat transparansi pemerintahan di negara-negara ASEAN antara tahun 2000 sampai 2018. Penelitian ini membuktikan bahwa negara-negara yang memiliki sumber daya alam berlimpah memiliki transparansi yang lebih rendah dalam sistem pemerintahan mereka daripada negara-negara yang tidak memiliki sumber daya alam berlimpah dan negara-negara yang berlimpah sumber daya ini memiliki pertumbuhan ekonomi yang rendah. Dengan menggunakan regresi panel data fixed effect, hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan adanya hubungan negatif dari pendapatan sumber daya alam ke transparansi, yang juga dipengaruh oleh pengeluaran pemerintah. Selain itu, pendapatan sumber daya alam mempengaruhi pertumbuhan ekonomi secara negatif juga khususnya pada pendapatan sumber daya diffuse (hasil pertanian dan ekspor makanan).

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This study analyzes the effect of the resource abundance on economic growth through government transparency on ASEAN countries between 2000 and 2018. This research proves that countries that have abundant natural resources have lower transparency in their government systems than countries that do not have abundant natural resources, and these abundant countries have low economic growth. By using fixed effect panel data regression, the results of this paper show a negative relationship from natural resource revenues to transparency, which also influenced by government spending. Furthermore, natural resource revenue negatively affects economic growth as well, particularly in diffuse resources (agricultural products and food exports)."

"The economic theory of general equilibrium underpins the most important models used in economic theory in general and in its more specialized areas such as macroeconomics, international trade, environmental economics, growth theory, and developmental economics. In Foundations of the Theory of General Equilibrium, leading academic scholar, Yves Balasko offers a good introduction to the economic theory of general equilibrium and makes use of various mathematical tools as intuitive and easy as possible. The second half of the book addresses properties of the general equilibrium model that are still at the frontier of current research. These properties deal with the characterization of economies with a unique equilibrium and, more generally, with the relationships between the number of equilibria and the fundamentals of an econom"