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"Since Indonesian independence, its Chinese minority has been a Victim of violent outbreaks, but also of restrictive policies arising from politics and administrative measures. From about 1957, with the closure of Chinese language schools and subsequent regulations about expression of Chinese culture, many speak of the erasure of that culture through such restrictions. Violent anti Chinese outbreaks have proceeded from the Indonesian Revolution and the presidency of Soekamo (especially the so called PP 10 measures against Chinese rural traders) to the era of Suharto, which began with the 1965-1967 anti Communist massacres and their effects on ethnic Chinese and came to an end with the provocation of violence against ethnic Chinese in major Indonesian cities. This paper also discusses the reactions to these waves of anti Chinese measures: rejection, flight, but also countermeasures in the form of political activity. In the years since Reformasi, as attacks on them have subsided, many Chinese Indonesians have Chosen to emphasize their participation in Indonesian history and their positive contributions to Indonesian culture. "

"The Chinese in Indonesia have historically constituted a distinct, if small, ethnic minority amongst the population as a whole. Many of the trading and middleman functions in the Indonesian economy have been per-formed by members of this minority. This fact has aroused hostility to the Chinese, particularly among their Indonesian business competitors. Although many Chinese have been profoundly influenced by Indonesian cul¬ture, they have as a group continued to be sensed by Indonesians as alien even in the case of those who have become Indonesian citizens. Dutch col¬onial policies had the effect of keeping Chinese and Indonesians as sep¬arate groups. The gap between them was widened early in this century by the growth Sf nationalist sentiment among both Chinese and Indonesians. The achievement of national independence by the Indonesian elite brought about a prolonged crisis of identity for the Indonesian Chinese. Over the course of the next two decades, many issues of basic importance to them came into contention. These included their claims to Indonesian citizenship, the kinds of education to which their children could have ac¬cess, their retention of a separate social and cultural identity, and the defence of Chinese economic interests. Their situation was complicated by the emergence of China as a major power under a communist government, which made their political loyalties doubly suspect in the eyes of anti-communist Indonesians. As a small but relatively wealthy ethnic minority which has been ex-posed for a long time to anti-Chinese prejudice on the part of many Indo¬nesians, the Indonesian Chinese have characteristically been compelled (given the powerlessness of China to protect them) to seek an accommodation"